Daily Papers

AI is undergoing a paradigm shift, with breakthroughs achieved by systems orchestrating multiple large language models (LLMs) and other complex components. As a result, developing principled and automated optimization methods for compound AI systems is one of the most important new challenges. Neural networks faced a similar challenge in its early days until backpropagation and automatic differentiation transformed the field by making optimization turn-key. Inspired by this, we introduce TextGrad, a powerful framework performing automatic ``differentiation'' via text. TextGrad backpropagates textual feedback provided by LLMs to improve individual components of a compound AI system. In our framework, LLMs provide rich, general, natural language suggestions to optimize variables in computation graphs, ranging from code snippets to molecular structures. TextGrad follows PyTorch's syntax and abstraction and is flexible and easy-to-use. It works out-of-the-box for a variety of tasks, where the users only provide the objective function without tuning components or prompts of the framework. We showcase TextGrad's effectiveness and generality across a diverse range of applications, from question answering and molecule optimization to radiotherapy treatment planning. Without modifying the framework, TextGrad improves the zero-shot accuracy of GPT-4o in Google-Proof Question Answering from 51% to 55%, yields 20% relative performance gain in optimizing LeetCode-Hard coding problem solutions, improves prompts for reasoning, designs new druglike small molecules with desirable in silico binding, and designs radiation oncology treatment plans with high specificity. TextGrad lays a foundation to accelerate the development of the next-generation of AI systems.

Identifying drug-target interactions is essential for developing effective therapeutics. Binding affinity quantifies these interactions, and traditional approaches rely on computationally intensive 3D structural data. In contrast, language models can efficiently process sequential data, offering an alternative approach to molecular representation. In the current study, we introduce BAPULM, an innovative sequence-based framework that leverages the chemical latent representations of proteins via ProtT5-XL-U50 and ligands through MolFormer, eliminating reliance on complex 3D configurations. Our approach was validated extensively on benchmark datasets, achieving scoring power (R) values of 0.925 pm 0.043, 0.914 pm 0.004, and 0.8132 pm 0.001 on benchmark1k2101, Test2016_290, and CSAR-HiQ_36, respectively. These findings indicate the robustness and accuracy of BAPULM across diverse datasets and underscore the potential of sequence-based models in-silico drug discovery, offering a scalable alternative to 3D-centric methods for screening potential ligands.

Predicting how a drug-like molecule binds to a specific protein target is a core problem in drug discovery. An extremely fast computational binding method would enable key applications such as fast virtual screening or drug engineering. Existing methods are computationally expensive as they rely on heavy candidate sampling coupled with scoring, ranking, and fine-tuning steps. We challenge this paradigm with EquiBind, an SE(3)-equivariant geometric deep learning model performing direct-shot prediction of both i) the receptor binding location (blind docking) and ii) the ligand's bound pose and orientation. EquiBind achieves significant speed-ups and better quality compared to traditional and recent baselines. Further, we show extra improvements when coupling it with existing fine-tuning techniques at the cost of increased running time. Finally, we propose a novel and fast fine-tuning model that adjusts torsion angles of a ligand's rotatable bonds based on closed-form global minima of the von Mises angular distance to a given input atomic point cloud, avoiding previous expensive differential evolution strategies for energy minimization.

Computational design of protein-binding proteins is a fundamental capability with broad utility in biomedical research and biotechnology. Recent methods have made strides against some target proteins, but on-demand creation of high-affinity binders without multiple rounds of experimental testing remains an unsolved challenge. This technical report introduces AlphaProteo, a family of machine learning models for protein design, and details its performance on the de novo binder design problem. With AlphaProteo, we achieve 3- to 300-fold better binding affinities and higher experimental success rates than the best existing methods on seven target proteins. Our results suggest that AlphaProteo can generate binders "ready-to-use" for many research applications using only one round of medium-throughput screening and no further optimization.

Accurate prediction of protein-ligand binding affinities is crucial in drug discovery, particularly during hit-to-lead and lead optimization phases, however, limitations in ligand force fields continue to impact prediction accuracy. In this work, we validate relative binding free energy (RBFE) accuracy using neural network potentials (NNPs) for the ligands. We utilize a novel NNP model, AceForce 1.0, based on the TensorNet architecture for small molecules that broadens the applicability to diverse drug-like compounds, including all important chemical elements and supporting charged molecules. Using established benchmarks, we show overall improved accuracy and correlation in binding affinity predictions compared with GAFF2 for molecular mechanics and ANI2-x for NNPs. Slightly less accuracy but comparable correlations with OPLS4. We also show that we can run the NNP simulations at 2 fs timestep, at least two times larger than previous NNP models, providing significant speed gains. The results show promise for further evolutions of free energy calculations using NNPs while demonstrating its practical use already with the current generation. The code and NNP model are publicly available for research use.

Modeling the interaction between proteins and ligands and accurately predicting their binding structures is a critical yet challenging task in drug discovery. Recent advancements in deep learning have shown promise in addressing this challenge, with sampling-based and regression-based methods emerging as two prominent approaches. However, these methods have notable limitations. Sampling-based methods often suffer from low efficiency due to the need for generating multiple candidate structures for selection. On the other hand, regression-based methods offer fast predictions but may experience decreased accuracy. Additionally, the variation in protein sizes often requires external modules for selecting suitable binding pockets, further impacting efficiency. In this work, we propose FABind, an end-to-end model that combines pocket prediction and docking to achieve accurate and fast protein-ligand binding. FABind incorporates a unique ligand-informed pocket prediction module, which is also leveraged for docking pose estimation. The model further enhances the docking process by incrementally integrating the predicted pocket to optimize protein-ligand binding, reducing discrepancies between training and inference. Through extensive experiments on benchmark datasets, our proposed FABind demonstrates strong advantages in terms of effectiveness and efficiency compared to existing methods. Our code is available at https://github.com/QizhiPei/FABind

Generating novel active molecules for a given protein is an extremely challenging task for generative models that requires an understanding of the complex physical interactions between the molecule and its environment. In this paper, we present a novel generative model, BindGPT which uses a conceptually simple but powerful approach to create 3D molecules within the protein's binding site. Our model produces molecular graphs and conformations jointly, eliminating the need for an extra graph reconstruction step. We pretrain BindGPT on a large-scale dataset and fine-tune it with reinforcement learning using scores from external simulation software. We demonstrate how a single pretrained language model can serve at the same time as a 3D molecular generative model, conformer generator conditioned on the molecular graph, and a pocket-conditioned 3D molecule generator. Notably, the model does not make any representational equivariance assumptions about the domain of generation. We show how such simple conceptual approach combined with pretraining and scaling can perform on par or better than the current best specialized diffusion models, language models, and graph neural networks while being two orders of magnitude cheaper to sample.

Accurate prediction of protein-ligand binding poses is crucial for structure-based drug design, yet existing methods struggle to balance speed, accuracy, and physical plausibility. We introduce Matcha, a novel molecular docking pipeline that combines multi-stage flow matching with learned scoring and physical validity filtering. Our approach consists of three sequential stages applied consecutively to refine docking predictions, each implemented as a flow matching model operating on appropriate geometric spaces (R^3, SO(3), and SO(2)). We enhance the prediction quality through a dedicated scoring model and apply unsupervised physical validity filters to eliminate unrealistic poses. Compared to various approaches, Matcha demonstrates superior performance on Astex and PDBbind test sets in terms of docking success rate and physical plausibility. Moreover, our method works approximately 25 times faster than modern large-scale co-folding models. The model weights and inference code to reproduce our results are available at https://github.com/LigandPro/Matcha.

Protein-ligand binding affinity prediction is essential for drug discovery and toxicity assessment. While machine learning (ML) promises fast and accurate predictions, its progress is constrained by the availability of reliable data. In contrast, physics-based methods such as absolute binding free energy perturbation (AB-FEP) deliver high accuracy but are computationally prohibitive for high-throughput applications. To bridge this gap, we introduce ToxBench, the first large-scale AB-FEP dataset designed for ML development and focused on a single pharmaceutically critical target, Human Estrogen Receptor Alpha (ERalpha). ToxBench contains 8,770 ERalpha-ligand complex structures with binding free energies computed via AB-FEP with a subset validated against experimental affinities at 1.75 kcal/mol RMSE, along with non-overlapping ligand splits to assess model generalizability. Using ToxBench, we further benchmark state-of-the-art ML methods, and notably, our proposed DualBind model, which employs a dual-loss framework to effectively learn the binding energy function. The benchmark results demonstrate the superior performance of DualBind and the potential of ML to approximate AB-FEP at a fraction of the computational cost.

The binding between proteins and ligands plays a crucial role in the realm of drug discovery. Previous deep learning approaches have shown promising results over traditional computationally intensive methods, but resulting in poor generalization due to limited supervised data. In this paper, we propose to learn protein-ligand binding representation in a self-supervised learning manner. Different from existing pre-training approaches which treat proteins and ligands individually, we emphasize to discern the intricate binding patterns from fine-grained interactions. Specifically, this self-supervised learning problem is formulated as a prediction of the conclusive binding complex structure given a pocket and ligand with a Transformer based interaction module, which naturally emulates the binding process. To ensure the representation of rich binding information, we introduce two pre-training tasks, i.e.~atomic pairwise distance map prediction and mask ligand reconstruction, which comprehensively model the fine-grained interactions from both structure and feature space. Extensive experiments have demonstrated the superiority of our method across various binding tasks, including protein-ligand affinity prediction, virtual screening and protein-ligand docking.

Foundation models applied to bio-molecular space hold promise to accelerate drug discovery. Molecular representation is key to building such models. Previous works have typically focused on a single representation or view of the molecules. Here, we develop a multi-view foundation model approach, that integrates molecular views of graph, image and text. Single-view foundation models are each pre-trained on a dataset of up to 200M molecules and then aggregated into combined representations. Our multi-view model is validated on a diverse set of 18 tasks, encompassing ligand-protein binding, molecular solubility, metabolism and toxicity. We show that the multi-view models perform robustly and are able to balance the strengths and weaknesses of specific views. We then apply this model to screen compounds against a large (>100 targets) set of G Protein-Coupled receptors (GPCRs). From this library of targets, we identify 33 that are related to Alzheimer's disease. On this subset, we employ our model to identify strong binders, which are validated through structure-based modeling and identification of key binding motifs.

Generative models for structure-based drug design (SBDD) have shown promising results in recent years. Existing works mainly focus on how to generate molecules with higher binding affinity, ignoring the feasibility prerequisites for generated 3D poses and resulting in false positives. We conduct thorough studies on key factors of ill-conformational problems when applying autoregressive methods and diffusion to SBDD, including mode collapse and hybrid continuous-discrete space. In this paper, we introduce MolCRAFT, the first SBDD model that operates in the continuous parameter space, together with a novel noise reduced sampling strategy. Empirical results show that our model consistently achieves superior performance in binding affinity with more stable 3D structure, demonstrating our ability to accurately model interatomic interactions. To our best knowledge, MolCRAFT is the first to achieve reference-level Vina Scores (-6.59 kcal/mol) with comparable molecular size, outperforming other strong baselines by a wide margin (-0.84 kcal/mol). Code is available at https://github.com/AlgoMole/MolCRAFT.

Proteins power a vast array of functional processes in living cells. The capability to create new proteins with designed structures and functions would thus enable the engineering of cellular behavior and development of protein-based therapeutics and materials. Structure-based protein design aims to find structures that are designable (can be realized by a protein sequence), novel (have dissimilar geometry from natural proteins), and diverse (span a wide range of geometries). While advances in protein structure prediction have made it possible to predict structures of novel protein sequences, the combinatorially large space of sequences and structures limits the practicality of search-based methods. Generative models provide a compelling alternative, by implicitly learning the low-dimensional structure of complex data distributions. Here, we leverage recent advances in denoising diffusion probabilistic models and equivariant neural networks to develop Genie, a generative model of protein structures that performs discrete-time diffusion using a cloud of oriented reference frames in 3D space. Through in silico evaluations, we demonstrate that Genie generates protein backbones that are more designable, novel, and diverse than existing models. This indicates that Genie is capturing key aspects of the distribution of protein structure space and facilitates protein design with high success rates. Code for generating new proteins and training new versions of Genie is available at https://github.com/aqlaboratory/genie.

Biomolecular interactions underpin almost all biological processes, and their rational design is central to programming new biological functions. Generative AI models have emerged as powerful tools for molecular design, yet most remain specialized for individual molecular types and lack fine-grained control over interaction details. Here we present ODesign, an all-atom generative world model for all-to-all biomolecular interaction design. ODesign allows scientists to specify epitopes on arbitrary targets and generate diverse classes of binding partners with fine-grained control. Across entity-, token-, and atom-level benchmarks in the protein modality, ODesign demonstrates superior controllability and performance to modality-specific baselines. Extending beyond proteins, it generalizes to nucleic acid and small-molecule design, enabling interaction types such as protein-binding RNA/DNA and RNA/DNA-binding ligands that were previously inaccessible. By unifying multimodal biomolecular interactions within a single generative framework, ODesign moves toward a general-purpose molecular world model capable of programmable design. ODesign is available at https://odesign.lglab.ac.cn ,

Predicting peptide--major histocompatibility complex I (pMHC-I) binding affinity remains challenging due to extreme allelic diversity (sim30,000 HLA alleles), severe data scarcity for most alleles, and noisy experimental measurements. Current methods particularly struggle with underrepresented alleles and quantitative binding prediction. We test whether domain-specific continued pre-training of protein language models is beneficial for their application to pMHC-I binding affinity prediction. Starting from ESM Cambrian (300M parameters), we perform masked-language modeling (MLM)-based continued pre-training on HLA-associated peptides (epitopes), testing two input formats: epitope sequences alone versus epitopes concatenated with HLA heavy chain sequences. We then fine-tune for functional IC_{50} binding affinity prediction using only high-quality quantitative data, avoiding mass spectrometry biases that are inherited by existing methods.

The detection of ligand binding sites for proteins is a fundamental step in Structure-Based Drug Design. Despite notable advances in recent years, existing methods, datasets, and evaluation metrics are confronted with several key challenges: (1) current datasets and methods are centered on individual protein-ligand complexes and neglect that diverse binding sites may exist across multiple complexes of the same protein, introducing significant statistical bias; (2) ligand binding site detection is typically modeled as a discontinuous workflow, employing binary segmentation and subsequent clustering algorithms; (3) traditional evaluation metrics do not adequately reflect the actual performance of different binding site prediction methods. To address these issues, we first introduce UniSite-DS, the first UniProt (Unique Protein)-centric ligand binding site dataset, which contains 4.81 times more multi-site data and 2.08 times more overall data compared to the previously most widely used datasets. We then propose UniSite, the first end-to-end ligand binding site detection framework supervised by set prediction loss with bijective matching. In addition, we introduce Average Precision based on Intersection over Union (IoU) as a more accurate evaluation metric for ligand binding site prediction. Extensive experiments on UniSite-DS and several representative benchmark datasets demonstrate that IoU-based Average Precision provides a more accurate reflection of prediction quality, and that UniSite outperforms current state-of-the-art methods in ligand binding site detection. The dataset and codes will be made publicly available at https://github.com/quanlin-wu/unisite.

Designing enzyme backbones with substrate-specific functionality is a critical challenge in computational protein engineering. Current generative models excel in protein design but face limitations in binding data, substrate-specific control, and flexibility for de novo enzyme backbone generation. To address this, we introduce EnzyBind, a dataset with 11,100 experimentally validated enzyme-substrate pairs specifically curated from PDBbind. Building on this, we propose EnzyControl, a method that enables functional and substrate-specific control in enzyme backbone generation. Our approach generates enzyme backbones conditioned on MSA-annotated catalytic sites and their corresponding substrates, which are automatically extracted from curated enzyme-substrate data. At the core of EnzyControl is EnzyAdapter, a lightweight, modular component integrated into a pretrained motif-scaffolding model, allowing it to become substrate-aware. A two-stage training paradigm further refines the model's ability to generate accurate and functional enzyme structures. Experiments show that our EnzyControl achieves the best performance across structural and functional metrics on EnzyBind and EnzyBench benchmarks, with particularly notable improvements of 13\% in designability and 13\% in catalytic efficiency compared to the baseline models. The code is released at https://github.com/Vecteur-libre/EnzyControl.

Molecule discovery serves as a cornerstone in numerous scientific domains, fueling the development of new materials and innovative drug designs. Recent developments of in-silico molecule discovery have highlighted the promising results of cross-modal techniques, which bridge molecular structures with their descriptive annotations. However, these cross-modal methods frequently encounter the issue of data scarcity, hampering their performance and application. In this paper, we address the low-resource challenge by utilizing artificially-real data generated by Large Language Models (LLMs). We first introduce a retrieval-based prompting strategy to construct high-quality pseudo data, then explore the optimal method to effectively leverage this pseudo data. Experiments show that using pseudo data for domain adaptation outperforms all existing methods, while also requiring a smaller model scale, reduced data size and lower training cost, highlighting its efficiency. Furthermore, our method shows a sustained improvement as the volume of pseudo data increases, revealing the great potential of pseudo data in advancing low-resource cross-modal molecule discovery.

The success of drug discovery and development relies on the precise prediction of molecular activities and properties. While in silico molecular property prediction has shown remarkable potential, its use has been limited so far to assays for which large amounts of data are available. In this study, we use a fine-tuned large language model to integrate biological assays based on their textual information, coupled with Barlow Twins, a Siamese neural network using a novel self-supervised learning approach. This architecture uses both assay information and molecular fingerprints to extract the true molecular information. TwinBooster enables the prediction of properties of unseen bioassays and molecules by providing state-of-the-art zero-shot learning tasks. Remarkably, our artificial intelligence pipeline shows excellent performance on the FS-Mol benchmark. This breakthrough demonstrates the application of deep learning to critical property prediction tasks where data is typically scarce. By accelerating the early identification of active molecules in drug discovery and development, this method has the potential to help streamline the identification of novel therapeutics.

Generative models for structure-based drug design are often limited to a specific modality, restricting their broader applicability. To address this challenge, we introduce FuncBind, a framework based on computer vision to generate target-conditioned, all-atom molecules across atomic systems. FuncBind uses neural fields to represent molecules as continuous atomic densities and employs score-based generative models with modern architectures adapted from the computer vision literature. This modality-agnostic representation allows a single unified model to be trained on diverse atomic systems, from small to large molecules, and handle variable atom/residue counts, including non-canonical amino acids. FuncBind achieves competitive in silico performance in generating small molecules, macrocyclic peptides, and antibody complementarity-determining region loops, conditioned on target structures. FuncBind also generated in vitro novel antibody binders via de novo redesign of the complementarity-determining region H3 loop of two chosen co-crystal structures. As a final contribution, we introduce a new dataset and benchmark for structure-conditioned macrocyclic peptide generation. The code is available at https://github.com/prescient-design/funcbind.

Biological processes, functions, and properties are intricately linked to the ensemble of protein conformations, rather than being solely determined by a single stable conformation. In this study, we have developed P2DFlow, a generative model based on SE(3) flow matching, to predict the structural ensembles of proteins. We specifically designed a valuable prior for the flow process and enhanced the model's ability to distinguish each intermediate state by incorporating an additional dimension to describe the ensemble data, which can reflect the physical laws governing the distribution of ensembles, so that the prior knowledge can effectively guide the generation process. When trained and evaluated on the MD datasets of ATLAS, P2DFlow outperforms other baseline models on extensive experiments, successfully capturing the observable dynamic fluctuations as evidenced in crystal structure and MD simulations. As a potential proxy agent for protein molecular simulation, the high-quality ensembles generated by P2DFlow could significantly aid in understanding protein functions across various scenarios. Code is available at https://github.com/BLEACH366/P2DFlow

Molecular docking is an important tool for structure-based drug design, accelerating the efficiency of drug development. Complex and dynamic binding processes between proteins and small molecules require searching and sampling over a wide spatial range. Traditional docking by searching for possible binding sites and conformations is computationally complex and results poorly under blind docking. Quantum-inspired algorithms combining quantum properties and annealing show great advantages in solving combinatorial optimization problems. Inspired by this, we achieve an improved in blind docking by using quantum-inspired combined with gradients learned by deep learning in the encoded molecular space. Numerical simulation shows that our method outperforms traditional docking algorithms and deep learning-based algorithms over 10\%. Compared to the current state-of-the-art deep learning-based docking algorithm DiffDock, the success rate of Top-1 (RMSD<2) achieves an improvement from 33\% to 35\% in our same setup. In particular, a 6\% improvement is realized in the high-precision region(RMSD<1) on molecules data unseen in DiffDock, which demonstrates the well-generalized of our method.

Coarse-graining (CG) accelerates molecular simulations of protein dynamics by simulating sets of atoms as singular beads. Backmapping is the opposite operation of bringing lost atomistic details back from the CG representation. While machine learning (ML) has produced accurate and efficient CG simulations of proteins, fast and reliable backmapping remains a challenge. Rule-based methods produce poor all-atom geometries, needing computationally costly refinement through additional simulations. Recently proposed ML approaches outperform traditional baselines but are not transferable between proteins and sometimes generate unphysical atom placements with steric clashes and implausible torsion angles. This work addresses both issues to build a fast, transferable, and reliable generative backmapping tool for CG protein representations. We achieve generalization and reliability through a combined set of innovations: representation based on internal coordinates; an equivariant encoder/prior; a custom loss function that helps ensure local structure, global structure, and physical constraints; and expert curation of high-quality out-of-equilibrium protein data for training. Our results pave the way for out-of-the-box backmapping of coarse-grained simulations for arbitrary proteins.

Virtual Screening is an essential technique in the early phases of drug discovery, aimed at identifying promising drug candidates from vast molecular libraries. Recently, ligand-based virtual screening has garnered significant attention due to its efficacy in conducting extensive database screenings without relying on specific protein-binding site information. Obtaining binding affinity data for complexes is highly expensive, resulting in a limited amount of available data that covers a relatively small chemical space. Moreover, these datasets contain a significant amount of inconsistent noise. It is challenging to identify an inductive bias that consistently maintains the integrity of molecular activity during data augmentation. To tackle these challenges, we propose S-MolSearch, the first framework to our knowledge, that leverages molecular 3D information and affinity information in semi-supervised contrastive learning for ligand-based virtual screening. Drawing on the principles of inverse optimal transport, S-MolSearch efficiently processes both labeled and unlabeled data, training molecular structural encoders while generating soft labels for the unlabeled data. This design allows S-MolSearch to adaptively utilize unlabeled data within the learning process. Empirically, S-MolSearch demonstrates superior performance on widely-used benchmarks LIT-PCBA and DUD-E. It surpasses both structure-based and ligand-based virtual screening methods for AUROC, BEDROC and EF.

The effects of ligand binding on protein structures and their in vivo functions carry numerous implications for modern biomedical research and biotechnology development efforts such as drug discovery. Although several deep learning (DL) methods and benchmarks designed for protein-ligand docking have recently been introduced, to date no prior works have systematically studied the behavior of the latest docking and structure prediction methods within the broadly applicable context of (1) using predicted (apo) protein structures for docking (e.g., for applicability to new proteins); (2) binding multiple (cofactor) ligands concurrently to a given target protein (e.g., for enzyme design); and (3) having no prior knowledge of binding pockets (e.g., for generalization to unknown pockets). To enable a deeper understanding of docking methods' real-world utility, we introduce PoseBench, the first comprehensive benchmark for broadly applicable protein-ligand docking. PoseBench enables researchers to rigorously and systematically evaluate DL methods for apo-to-holo protein-ligand docking and protein-ligand structure prediction using both primary ligand and multi-ligand benchmark datasets, the latter of which we introduce for the first time to the DL community. Empirically, using PoseBench, we find that (1) DL co-folding methods generally outperform comparable conventional and DL docking baselines, yet popular methods such as AlphaFold 3 are still challenged by prediction targets with novel protein sequences; (2) certain DL co-folding methods are highly sensitive to their input multiple sequence alignments, while others are not; and (3) DL methods struggle to strike a balance between structural accuracy and chemical specificity when predicting novel or multi-ligand protein targets. Code, data, tutorials, and benchmark results are available at https://github.com/BioinfoMachineLearning/PoseBench.

Motivation: The development of novel compounds targeting proteins of interest is one of the most important tasks in the pharmaceutical industry. Deep generative models have been applied to targeted molecular design and have shown promising results. Recently, target-specific molecule generation has been viewed as a translation between the protein language and the chemical language. However, such a model is limited by the availability of interacting protein-ligand pairs. On the other hand, large amounts of unlabeled protein sequences and chemical compounds are available and have been used to train language models that learn useful representations. In this study, we propose exploiting pretrained biochemical language models to initialize (i.e. warm start) targeted molecule generation models. We investigate two warm start strategies: (i) a one-stage strategy where the initialized model is trained on targeted molecule generation (ii) a two-stage strategy containing a pre-finetuning on molecular generation followed by target specific training. We also compare two decoding strategies to generate compounds: beam search and sampling. Results: The results show that the warm-started models perform better than a baseline model trained from scratch. The two proposed warm-start strategies achieve similar results to each other with respect to widely used metrics from benchmarks. However, docking evaluation of the generated compounds for a number of novel proteins suggests that the one-stage strategy generalizes better than the two-stage strategy. Additionally, we observe that beam search outperforms sampling in both docking evaluation and benchmark metrics for assessing compound quality. Availability and implementation: The source code is available at https://github.com/boun-tabi/biochemical-lms-for-drug-design and the materials are archived in Zenodo at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6832145

Fluorescence labeling is the standard approach to reveal cellular structures and other subcellular constituents for microscopy images. However, this invasive procedure may perturb or even kill the cells and the procedure itself is highly time-consuming and complex. Recently, in silico labeling has emerged as a promising alternative, aiming to use machine learning models to directly predict the fluorescently labeled images from label-free microscopy. In this paper, we propose a deep learning-based in silico labeling method for the Light My Cells challenge. Built upon pix2pix, our proposed method can be trained using the partially labeled datasets with an adaptive loss. Moreover, we explore the effectiveness of several training strategies to handle different input modalities, such as training them together or separately. The results show that our method achieves promising performance for in silico labeling. Our code is available at https://github.com/MedICL-VU/LightMyCells.

Most human proteins remain undrugged, over 96% of human proteins remain unexploited by approved therapeutics. While structure-based virtual screening promises to expand the druggable proteome, existing methods lack atomic-level precision and fail to predict binding fitness, limiting translational impact. We present AuroBind, a scalable virtual screening framework that fine-tunes a custom atomic-level structural model on million-scale chemogenomic data. AuroBind integrates direct preference optimization, self-distillation from high-confidence complexes, and a teacher-student acceleration strategy to jointly predict ligand-bound structures and binding fitness. The proposed models outperform state-of-the-art models on structural and functional benchmarks while enabling 100,000-fold faster screening across ultra-large compound libraries. In a prospective screen across ten disease-relevant targets, AuroBind achieved experimental hit rates of 7-69%, with top compounds reaching sub-nanomolar to picomolar potency. For the orphan GPCRs GPR151 and GPR160, AuroBind identified both agonists and antagonists with success rates of 16-30%, and functional assays confirmed GPR160 modulation in liver and prostate cancer models. AuroBind offers a generalizable framework for structure-function learning and high-throughput molecular screening, bridging the gap between structure prediction and therapeutic discovery.

The dynamic nature of proteins is crucial for determining their biological functions and properties, for which Monte Carlo (MC) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations stand as predominant tools to study such phenomena. By utilizing empirically derived force fields, MC or MD simulations explore the conformational space through numerically evolving the system via Markov chain or Newtonian mechanics. However, the high-energy barrier of the force fields can hamper the exploration of both methods by the rare event, resulting in inadequately sampled ensemble without exhaustive running. Existing learning-based approaches perform direct sampling yet heavily rely on target-specific simulation data for training, which suffers from high data acquisition cost and poor generalizability. Inspired by simulated annealing, we propose Str2Str, a novel structure-to-structure translation framework capable of zero-shot conformation sampling with roto-translation equivariant property. Our method leverages an amortized denoising score matching objective trained on general crystal structures and has no reliance on simulation data during both training and inference. Experimental results across several benchmarking protein systems demonstrate that Str2Str outperforms previous state-of-the-art generative structure prediction models and can be orders of magnitude faster compared to long MD simulations. Our open-source implementation is available at https://github.com/lujiarui/Str2Str

Drug-protein binding and dissociation dynamics are fundamental to understanding molecular interactions in biological systems. While many tools for drug-protein interaction studies have emerged, especially artificial intelligence (AI)-based generative models, predictive tools on binding/dissociation kinetics and dynamics are still limited. We propose a novel research paradigm that combines molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, enhanced sampling, and AI generative models to address this issue. We propose an enhanced sampling strategy to efficiently implement the drug-protein dissociation process in MD simulations and estimate the free energy surface (FES). We constructed a program pipeline of MD simulations based on this sampling strategy, thus generating a dataset including 26,612 drug-protein dissociation trajectories containing about 13 million frames. We named this dissociation dynamics dataset DD-13M and used it to train a deep equivariant generative model UnbindingFlow, which can generate collision-free dissociation trajectories. The DD-13M database and UnbindingFlow model represent a significant advancement in computational structural biology, and we anticipate its broad applicability in machine learning studies of drug-protein interactions. Our ongoing efforts focus on expanding this methodology to encompass a broader spectrum of drug-protein complexes and exploring novel applications in pathway prediction.

Generating molecules with high binding affinities to target proteins (a.k.a. structure-based drug design) is a fundamental and challenging task in drug discovery. Recently, deep generative models have achieved remarkable success in generating 3D molecules conditioned on the protein pocket. However, most existing methods consider molecular generation for protein pockets independently while neglecting the underlying connections such as subpocket-level similarities. Subpockets are the local protein environments of ligand fragments and pockets with similar subpockets may bind the same molecular fragment (motif) even though their overall structures are different. Therefore, the trained models can hardly generalize to unseen protein pockets in real-world applications. In this paper, we propose a novel method DrugGPS for generalizable structure-based drug design. With the biochemical priors, we propose to learn subpocket prototypes and construct a global interaction graph to model the interactions between subpocket prototypes and molecular motifs. Moreover, a hierarchical graph transformer encoder and motif-based 3D molecule generation scheme are used to improve the model's performance. The experimental results show that our model consistently outperforms baselines in generating realistic drug candidates with high affinities in challenging out-of-distribution settings.

Personalized vaccines and T-cell immunotherapies depend critically on identifying peptide-MHC class I (pMHC-I) interactions capable of eliciting potent immune responses. However, current benchmarks and models inherit biases present in mass-spectrometry and binding-assay datasets, limiting discovery of novel peptide ligands. To address this issue, we introduce a structure-guided benchmark of pMHC-I peptides designed using diffusion models conditioned on crystal structure interaction distances. Spanning twenty high-priority HLA alleles, this benchmark is independent of previously characterized peptides yet reproduces canonical anchor residue preferences, indicating structural generalization without experimental dataset bias. Using this resource, we demonstrate that state-of-the-art sequence-based predictors perform poorly at recognizing the binding potential of these structurally stable designs, indicating allele-specific limitations invisible in conventional evaluations. Our geometry-aware design pipeline yields peptides with high predicted structural integrity and higher residue diversity than existing datasets, representing a key resource for unbiased model training and evaluation. Our code, and data are available at: https://github.com/sermare/struct-mhc-dev.

As mathematical computing becomes more democratized in high-level languages, high-performance symbolic-numeric systems are necessary for domain scientists and engineers to get the best performance out of their machine without deep knowledge of code optimization. Naturally, users need different term types either to have different algebraic properties for them, or to use efficient data structures. To this end, we developed Symbolics.jl, an extendable symbolic system which uses dynamic multiple dispatch to change behavior depending on the domain needs. In this work we detail an underlying abstract term interface which allows for speed without sacrificing generality. We show that by formalizing a generic API on actions independent of implementation, we can retroactively add optimized data structures to our system without changing the pre-existing term rewriters. We showcase how this can be used to optimize term construction and give a 113x acceleration on general symbolic transformations. Further, we show that such a generic API allows for complementary term-rewriting implementations. We demonstrate the ability to swap between classical term-rewriting simplifiers and e-graph-based term-rewriting simplifiers. We showcase an e-graph ruleset which minimizes the number of CPU cycles during expression evaluation, and demonstrate how it simplifies a real-world reaction-network simulation to halve the runtime. Additionally, we show a reaction-diffusion partial differential equation solver which is able to be automatically converted into symbolic expressions via multiple dispatch tracing, which is subsequently accelerated and parallelized to give a 157x simulation speedup. Together, this presents Symbolics.jl as a next-generation symbolic-numeric computing environment geared towards modeling and simulation.

Proteins are fundamental to biology, executing diverse functions through complex physicochemical interactions, and they hold transformative potential across medicine, materials science, and environmental applications. Protein Language Models (pLMs) aim to unlock insights from the vast space of unlabeled protein sequences by learning rich, semantic representations from primary sequences via masked language modeling. However, these models typically exhibit limited generative capacity. In this work, we introduce the Diffusion Sequence Model (DSM), a novel pLM trained with masked diffusion to enable both high-quality representation learning and generative protein design. DSM builds upon the ESM2 architecture by incorporating a masked forward diffusion process inspired by the LLaDA framework. After training, DSM is capable of generating diverse, biomimetic sequences that align with expected amino acid compositions, secondary structures, and predicted functions, even with 90\% token corruption. Furthermore, DSM's learned representations match or exceed those of similarly sized pLMs on downstream tasks. We also introduce DSM(ppi), a variant fine-tuned to generate protein binders by attending to target sequences. We demonstrate DSM(ppi)'s effectiveness on the challenging Bench-tested Binder Benchmark (BenchBB), where both DSM and DSM(ppi) produce candidates with superior predicted binding affinity compared to known binders. Our results establish masked diffusion as a powerful paradigm for unifying protein representation and generation in a single framework.

Understanding and designing biomolecules, such as proteins and small molecules, is central to advancing drug discovery, synthetic biology, and enzyme engineering. Recent breakthroughs in Artificial Intelligence (AI) have revolutionized biomolecular research, achieving remarkable accuracy in biomolecular prediction and design. However, a critical gap remains between AI's computational power and researchers' intuition, using natural language to align molecular complexity with human intentions. Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown potential to interpret human intentions, yet their application to biomolecular research remains nascent due to challenges including specialized knowledge requirements, multimodal data integration, and semantic alignment between natural language and biomolecules. To address these limitations, we present InstructBioMol, a novel LLM designed to bridge natural language and biomolecules through a comprehensive any-to-any alignment of natural language, molecules, and proteins. This model can integrate multimodal biomolecules as input, and enable researchers to articulate design goals in natural language, providing biomolecular outputs that meet precise biological needs. Experimental results demonstrate InstructBioMol can understand and design biomolecules following human instructions. Notably, it can generate drug molecules with a 10% improvement in binding affinity and design enzymes that achieve an ESP Score of 70.4, making it the only method to surpass the enzyme-substrate interaction threshold of 60.0 recommended by the ESP developer. This highlights its potential to transform real-world biomolecular research.

We introduce InVirtuoGen, a discrete flow generative model for fragmented SMILES for de novo and fragment-constrained generation, and target-property/lead optimization of small molecules. The model learns to transform a uniform source over all possible tokens into the data distribution. Unlike masked models, its training loss accounts for predictions on all sequence positions at every denoising step, shifting the generation paradigm from completion to refinement, and decoupling the number of sampling steps from the sequence length. For de novo generation, InVirtuoGen achieves a stronger quality-diversity pareto frontier than prior fragment-based models and competitive performance on fragment-constrained tasks. For property and lead optimization, we propose a hybrid scheme that combines a genetic algorithm with a Proximal Property Optimization fine-tuning strategy adapted to discrete flows. Our approach sets a new state-of-the-art on the Practical Molecular Optimization benchmark, measured by top-10 AUC across tasks, and yields higher docking scores in lead optimization than previous baselines. InVirtuoGen thus establishes a versatile generative foundation for drug discovery, from early hit finding to multi-objective lead optimization. We further contribute to open science by releasing pretrained checkpoints and code, making our results fully reproduciblehttps://github.com/invirtuolabs/InVirtuoGen_results.

Multimodal protein language models deliver strong performance on mutation-effect prediction, but training such models from scratch demands substantial computational resources. In this paper, we propose a fine-tuning framework called InstructPLM-mu and try to answer a question: Can multimodal fine-tuning of a pretrained, sequence-only protein language model match the performance of models trained end-to-end? Surprisingly, our experiments show that fine-tuning ESM2 with structural inputs can reach performance comparable to ESM3. To understand how this is achieved, we systematically compare three different feature-fusion designs and fine-tuning recipes. Our results reveal that both the fusion method and the tuning strategy strongly affect final accuracy, indicating that the fine-tuning process is not trivial. We hope this work offers practical guidance for injecting structure into pretrained protein language models and motivates further research on better fusion mechanisms and fine-tuning protocols.

Ligand molecule conformation generation is a critical challenge in drug discovery. Deep learning models have been developed to tackle this problem, particularly through the use of generative models in recent years. However, these models often generate conformations that lack meaningful structure and randomness due to the absence of essential side information. Examples of such side information include the chemical and geometric features of the target protein, ligand-target compound interactions, and ligand chemical properties. Without these constraints, the generated conformations may not be suitable for further selection and design of new drugs. To address this limitation, we propose a novel method for generating ligand conformations that leverage side information and incorporate flexible constraints into standard diffusion models. Drawing inspiration from the concept of message passing, we introduce ligand-target massage passing block, a mechanism that facilitates the exchange of information between target nodes and ligand nodes, thereby incorporating target node features. To capture non-covalent interactions, we introduce ligand-target compound inter and intra edges. To further improve the biological relevance of the generated conformations, we train energy models using scalar chemical features. These models guide the progress of the standard Denoising Diffusion Probabilistic Models, resulting in more biologically meaningful conformations. We evaluate the performance of SIDEGEN using the PDBBind-2020 dataset, comparing it against other methods. The results demonstrate improvements in both Aligned RMSD and Ligand RMSD evaluations. Specifically, our model outperforms GeoDiff (trained on PDBBind-2020) by 20% in terms of the median aligned RMSD metric.

Recent research in representation learning utilizes large databases of proteins or molecules to acquire knowledge of drug and protein structures through unsupervised learning techniques. These pre-trained representations have proven to significantly enhance the accuracy of subsequent tasks, such as predicting the affinity between drugs and target proteins. In this study, we demonstrate that by incorporating knowledge graphs from diverse sources and modalities into the sequences or SMILES representation, we can further enrich the representation and achieve state-of-the-art results on established benchmark datasets. We provide preprocessed and integrated data obtained from 7 public sources, which encompass over 30M triples. Additionally, we make available the pre-trained models based on this data, along with the reported outcomes of their performance on three widely-used benchmark datasets for drug-target binding affinity prediction found in the Therapeutic Data Commons (TDC) benchmarks. Additionally, we make the source code for training models on benchmark datasets publicly available. Our objective in releasing these pre-trained models, accompanied by clean data for model pretraining and benchmark results, is to encourage research in knowledge-enhanced representation learning.

Antibodies comprise the most versatile class of binding molecules, with numerous applications in biomedicine. Computational design of antibodies involves generating novel and diverse sequences, while maintaining structural consistency. Unique to antibodies, designing the complementarity-determining region (CDR), which determines the antigen binding affinity and specificity, creates its own unique challenges. Recent deep learning models have shown impressive results, however the limited number of known antibody sequence/structure pairs frequently leads to degraded performance, particularly lacking diversity in the generated sequences. In our work we address this challenge by leveraging Model Reprogramming (MR), which repurposes pretrained models on a source language to adapt to the tasks that are in a different language and have scarce data - where it may be difficult to train a high-performing model from scratch or effectively fine-tune an existing pre-trained model on the specific task. Specifically, we introduce ReprogBert in which a pretrained English language model is repurposed for protein sequence infilling - thus considers cross-language adaptation using less data. Results on antibody design benchmarks show that our model on low-resourced antibody sequence dataset provides highly diverse CDR sequences, up to more than a two-fold increase of diversity over the baselines, without losing structural integrity and naturalness. The generated sequences also demonstrate enhanced antigen binding specificity and virus neutralization ability. Code is available at https://github.com/IBM/ReprogBERT

Recent years have seen the advent of molecular simulation datasets that are orders of magnitude larger and more diverse. These new datasets differ substantially in four aspects of complexity: 1. Chemical diversity (number of different elements), 2. system size (number of atoms per sample), 3. dataset size (number of data samples), and 4. domain shift (similarity of the training and test set). Despite these large differences, benchmarks on small and narrow datasets remain the predominant method of demonstrating progress in graph neural networks (GNNs) for molecular simulation, likely due to cheaper training compute requirements. This raises the question -- does GNN progress on small and narrow datasets translate to these more complex datasets? This work investigates this question by first developing the GemNet-OC model based on the large Open Catalyst 2020 (OC20) dataset. GemNet-OC outperforms the previous state-of-the-art on OC20 by 16% while reducing training time by a factor of 10. We then compare the impact of 18 model components and hyperparameter choices on performance in multiple datasets. We find that the resulting model would be drastically different depending on the dataset used for making model choices. To isolate the source of this discrepancy we study six subsets of the OC20 dataset that individually test each of the above-mentioned four dataset aspects. We find that results on the OC-2M subset correlate well with the full OC20 dataset while being substantially cheaper to train on. Our findings challenge the common practice of developing GNNs solely on small datasets, but highlight ways of achieving fast development cycles and generalizable results via moderately-sized, representative datasets such as OC-2M and efficient models such as GemNet-OC. Our code and pretrained model weights are open-sourced.

Traditional molecular string representations, such as SMILES, often pose challenges for AI-driven molecular design due to their non-sequential depiction of molecular substructures. To address this issue, we introduce Sequential Attachment-based Fragment Embedding (SAFE), a novel line notation for chemical structures. SAFE reimagines SMILES strings as an unordered sequence of interconnected fragment blocks while maintaining full compatibility with existing SMILES parsers. It streamlines complex generative tasks, including scaffold decoration, fragment linking, polymer generation, and scaffold hopping, while facilitating autoregressive generation for fragment-constrained design, thereby eliminating the need for intricate decoding or graph-based models. We demonstrate the effectiveness of SAFE by training an 87-million-parameter GPT2-like model on a dataset containing 1.1 billion SAFE representations. Through extensive experimentation, we show that our SAFE-GPT model exhibits versatile and robust optimization performance. SAFE opens up new avenues for the rapid exploration of chemical space under various constraints, promising breakthroughs in AI-driven molecular design.

Predicting ATP-Protein Binding sites in genes is of great significance in the field of Biology and Medicine. The majority of research in this field has been conducted through time- and resource-intensive 'wet experiments' in laboratories. Over the years, researchers have been investigating computational methods computational methods to accomplish the same goals, utilising the strength of advanced Deep Learning and NLP algorithms. In this paper, we propose to develop methods to classify ATP-Protein binding sites. We conducted various experiments mainly using PSSMs and several word embeddings as features. We used 2D CNNs and LightGBM classifiers as our chief Deep Learning Algorithms. The MP3Vec and BERT models have also been subjected to testing in our study. The outcomes of our experiments demonstrated improvement over the state-of-the-art benchmarks.

We study the optimisation problem associated with Gaussian process regression using squared loss. The most common approach to this problem is to apply an exact solver, such as conjugate gradient descent, either directly, or to a reduced-order version of the problem. Recently, driven by successes in deep learning, stochastic gradient descent has gained traction as an alternative. In this paper, we show that when done rightx2014by which we mean using specific insights from the optimisation and kernel communitiesx2014this approach is highly effective. We thus introduce a particular stochastic dual gradient descent algorithm, that may be implemented with a few lines of code using any deep learning framework. We explain our design decisions by illustrating their advantage against alternatives with ablation studies and show that the new method is highly competitive. Our evaluations on standard regression benchmarks and a Bayesian optimisation task set our approach apart from preconditioned conjugate gradients, variational Gaussian process approximations, and a previous version of stochastic gradient descent for Gaussian processes. On a molecular binding affinity prediction task, our method places Gaussian process regression on par in terms of performance with state-of-the-art graph neural networks.

Polymers are a versatile class of materials with widespread industrial applications. Advanced computational tools could revolutionize their design, but their complex, multi-scale nature poses significant modeling challenges. Conventional force fields often lack the accuracy and transferability required to capture the intricate interactions governing polymer behavior. Conversely, quantum-chemical methods are computationally prohibitive for the large systems and long timescales required to simulate relevant polymer phenomena. Here, we overcome these limitations with a machine learning force field (MLFF) approach. We demonstrate that macroscopic properties for a broad range of polymers can be predicted ab initio, without fitting to experimental data. Specifically, we develop a fast and scalable MLFF to accurately predict polymer densities, outperforming established classical force fields. Our MLFF also captures second-order phase transitions, enabling the prediction of glass transition temperatures. To accelerate progress in this domain, we introduce a benchmark of experimental bulk properties for 130 polymers and an accompanying quantum-chemical dataset. This work lays the foundation for a fully in silico design pipeline for next-generation polymeric materials.

Advancements in DNA sequencing technologies have significantly improved our ability to decode genomic sequences. However, the prediction and interpretation of these sequences remain challenging due to the intricate nature of genetic material. Large language models (LLMs) have introduced new opportunities for biological sequence analysis. Recent developments in genomic language models have underscored the potential of LLMs in deciphering DNA sequences. Nonetheless, existing models often face limitations in robustness and application scope, primarily due to constraints in model structure and training data scale. To address these limitations, we present GENERator, a generative genomic foundation model featuring a context length of 98k base pairs (bp) and 1.2B parameters. Trained on an expansive dataset comprising 386B bp of eukaryotic DNA, the GENERator demonstrates state-of-the-art performance across both established and newly proposed benchmarks. The model adheres to the central dogma of molecular biology, accurately generating protein-coding sequences that translate into proteins structurally analogous to known families. It also shows significant promise in sequence optimization, particularly through the prompt-responsive generation of promoter sequences with specific activity profiles. These capabilities position the GENERator as a pivotal tool for genomic research and biotechnological advancement, enhancing our ability to interpret and predict complex biological systems and enabling precise genomic interventions.

Recent AI advances have enabled multi-modal systems to model and translate diverse information spaces. Extending beyond text and vision, we introduce OneProt, a multi-modal AI for proteins that integrates structural, sequence, alignment, and binding site data. Using the ImageBind framework, OneProt aligns the latent spaces of modality encoders along protein sequences. It demonstrates strong performance in retrieval tasks and surpasses state-of-the-art methods in various downstream tasks, including metal ion binding classification, gene-ontology annotation, and enzyme function prediction. This work expands multi-modal capabilities in protein models, paving the way for applications in drug discovery, biocatalytic reaction planning, and protein engineering.

The efficient exploration of chemical space to design molecules with intended properties enables the accelerated discovery of drugs, materials, and catalysts, and is one of the most important outstanding challenges in chemistry. Encouraged by the recent surge in computer power and artificial intelligence development, many algorithms have been developed to tackle this problem. However, despite the emergence of many new approaches in recent years, comparatively little progress has been made in developing realistic benchmarks that reflect the complexity of molecular design for real-world applications. In this work, we develop a set of practical benchmark tasks relying on physical simulation of molecular systems mimicking real-life molecular design problems for materials, drugs, and chemical reactions. Additionally, we demonstrate the utility and ease of use of our new benchmark set by demonstrating how to compare the performance of several well-established families of algorithms. Surprisingly, we find that model performance can strongly depend on the benchmark domain. We believe that our benchmark suite will help move the field towards more realistic molecular design benchmarks, and move the development of inverse molecular design algorithms closer to designing molecules that solve existing problems in both academia and industry alike.

The motif-scaffolding problem is a central task in computational protein design: Given the coordinates of atoms in a geometry chosen to confer a desired biochemical function (a motif), the task is to identify diverse protein structures (scaffolds) that include the motif and maintain its geometry. Significant recent progress on motif-scaffolding has been made due to computational evaluation with reliable protein structure prediction and fixed-backbone sequence design methods. However, significant variability in evaluation strategies across publications has hindered comparability of results, challenged reproducibility, and impeded robust progress. In response we introduce MotifBench, comprising (1) a precisely specified pipeline and evaluation metrics, (2) a collection of 30 benchmark problems, and (3) an implementation of this benchmark and leaderboard at github.com/blt2114/MotifBench. The MotifBench test cases are more difficult compared to earlier benchmarks, and include protein design problems for which solutions are known but on which, to the best of our knowledge, state-of-the-art methods fail to identify any solution.

Recently, 3D generative models have shown promising performances in structure-based drug design by learning to generate ligands given target binding sites. However, only modeling the target-ligand distribution can hardly fulfill one of the main goals in drug discovery -- designing novel ligands with desired properties, e.g., high binding affinity, easily synthesizable, etc. This challenge becomes particularly pronounced when the target-ligand pairs used for training do not align with these desired properties. Moreover, most existing methods aim at solving de novo design task, while many generative scenarios requiring flexible controllability, such as R-group optimization and scaffold hopping, have received little attention. In this work, we propose DecompOpt, a structure-based molecular optimization method based on a controllable and decomposed diffusion model. DecompOpt presents a new generation paradigm which combines optimization with conditional diffusion models to achieve desired properties while adhering to the molecular grammar. Additionally, DecompOpt offers a unified framework covering both de novo design and controllable generation. To achieve so, ligands are decomposed into substructures which allows fine-grained control and local optimization. Experiments show that DecompOpt can efficiently generate molecules with improved properties than strong de novo baselines, and demonstrate great potential in controllable generation tasks.

The computational prediction and design of peptide binders targeting specific linear epitopes is crucial in biological and biomedical research, yet it remains challenging due to their highly dynamic nature and the scarcity of experimentally solved binding data. To address this problem, we built an unprecedentedly large-scale library of peptide pairs within stable secondary structures (beta sheets), leveraging newly available AlphaFold predicted structures. We then developed a machine learning method based on the Transformer architecture for the design of specific linear binders, in analogy to a language translation task. Our method, TransformerBeta, accurately predicts specific beta strand interactions and samples sequences with beta sheet-like molecular properties, while capturing interpretable physico-chemical interaction patterns. As such, it can propose specific candidate binders targeting linear epitope for experimental validation to inform protein design.

Computational quantum chemistry plays a critical role in drug discovery, chemical synthesis, and materials science. While first-principles methods, such as density functional theory (DFT), provide high accuracy in modeling electronic structures and predicting molecular properties, they are computationally expensive. Machine learning interatomic potentials (MLIPs) have emerged as promising surrogate models that aim to achieve DFT-level accuracy while enabling efficient large-scale atomistic simulations. The development of accurate and transferable MLIPs requires large-scale, high-quality datasets with both energy and force labels. Critically, MLIPs must generalize not only to stable geometries but also to intermediate, non-equilibrium conformations encountered during atomistic simulations. In this work, we introduce PubChemQCR, a large-scale dataset of molecular relaxation trajectories curated from the raw geometry optimization outputs of the PubChemQC project. PubChemQCR is the largest publicly available dataset of DFT-based relaxation trajectories for small organic molecules, comprising approximately 3.5 million trajectories and over 300 million molecular conformations computed at various levels of theory. Each conformation is labeled with both total energy and atomic forces, making the dataset suitable for training and evaluating MLIPs. To provide baselines for future developments, we benchmark nine representative MLIP models on the dataset. Our resources are publicly available at https://huggingface.co/divelab

Cancer is the second leading cause of death, with chemotherapy as one of the primary forms of treatment. As a result, researchers are turning to drug combination therapy to decrease drug resistance and increase efficacy. Current methods of drug combination screening, such as in vivo and in vitro, are inefficient due to stark time and monetary costs. In silico methods have become increasingly important for screening drugs, but current methods are inaccurate and generalize poorly to unseen anticancer drugs. In this paper, I employ a geometric deep-learning model utilizing a graph attention network that is equivariant to 3D rotations, translations, and reflections with structural motifs. Additionally, the gene expression of cancer cell lines is utilized to classify synergistic drug combinations specific to each cell line. I compared the proposed geometric deep learning framework to current state-of-the-art (SOTA) methods, and the proposed model architecture achieved greater performance on all 12 benchmark tasks performed on the DrugComb dataset. Specifically, the proposed framework outperformed other SOTA methods by an accuracy difference greater than 28%. Based on these results, I believe that the equivariant graph attention network's capability of learning geometric data accounts for the large performance improvements. The model's ability to generalize to foreign drugs is thought to be due to the structural motifs providing a better representation of the molecule. Overall, I believe that the proposed equivariant geometric deep learning framework serves as an effective tool for virtually screening anticancer drug combinations for further validation in a wet lab environment. The code for this work is made available online at: https://github.com/WeToTheMoon/EGAT_DrugSynergy.

Machine Learning Interatomic Potentials (MLIP) are a novel in silico approach for molecular property prediction, creating an alternative to disrupt the accuracy/speed trade-off of empirical force fields and density functional theory (DFT). In this white paper, we present our MLIP library which was created with two core aims: (1) provide to industry experts without machine learning background a user-friendly and computationally efficient set of tools to experiment with MLIP models, (2) provide machine learning developers a framework to develop novel approaches fully integrated with molecular dynamics tools. The library includes in this release three model architectures (MACE, NequIP, and ViSNet), and two molecular dynamics (MD) wrappers (ASE, and JAX-MD), along with a set of pre-trained organics models. The seamless integration with JAX-MD, in particular, facilitates highly efficient MD simulations, bringing MLIP models significantly closer to industrial application. The library is available on GitHub and on PyPI under the Apache license 2.0.

Chemical similarity searches are widely used in-silico methods for identifying new drug-like molecules. These methods have historically relied on structure-based comparisons to compute molecular similarity. Here, we use a chemical language model to create a vector-based chemical search. We extend implementations by creating a prompt engineering strategy that utilizes two different chemical string representation algorithms: one for the query and the other for the database. We explore this method by reviewing the search results from five drug-like query molecules (penicillin G, nirmatrelvir, zidovudine, lysergic acid diethylamide, and fentanyl) and three dye-like query molecules (acid blue 25, avobenzone, and 2-diphenylaminocarbazole). We find that this novel method identifies molecules that are functionally similar to the query, indicated by the associated patent literature, and that many of these molecules are structurally distinct from the query, making them unlikely to be found with traditional chemical similarity search methods. This method may aid in the discovery of novel structural classes of molecules that achieve target functionality.

While deep learning has revolutionized the prediction of rigid protein structures, modelling the conformational ensembles of Intrinsically Disordered Proteins (IDPs) remains a key frontier. Current AI paradigms present a trade-off: Protein Language Models (PLMs) capture evolutionary statistics but lack explicit physical grounding, while generative models trained to model full ensembles are computationally expensive. In this work we critically assess these limits and propose a path forward. We introduce GeoGraph, a simulation-informed surrogate trained to predict ensemble-averaged statistics of residue-residue contact-map topology directly from sequence. By featurizing coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations into residue- and sequence-level graph descriptors, we create a robust and information-rich learning target. Our evaluation demonstrates that this approach yields representations that are more predictive of key biophysical properties than existing methods.

Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are fundamental to numerous cellular processes, and their characterization is vital for understanding disease mechanisms and guiding drug discovery. While protein language models (PLMs) have demonstrated remarkable success in predicting protein structure and function, their application to sequence-based PPI binding affinity prediction remains relatively underexplored. This gap is often attributed to the scarcity of high-quality, rigorously refined datasets and the reliance on simple strategies for concatenating protein representations. In this work, we address these limitations. First, we introduce a meticulously curated version of the PPB-Affinity dataset of a total of 8,207 unique protein-protein interaction entries, by resolving annotation inconsistencies and duplicate entries for multi-chain protein interactions. This dataset incorporates a stringent, less than or equal to 30%, sequence identity threshold to ensure robust splitting into training, validation, and test sets, minimizing data leakage. Second, we propose and systematically evaluate four architectures for adapting PLMs to PPI binding affinity prediction: embeddings concatenation (EC), sequences concatenation (SC), hierarchical pooling (HP), and pooled attention addition (PAD). These architectures were assessed using two training methods: full fine-tuning and a lightweight approach employing ConvBERT heads over frozen PLM features. Our comprehensive experiments across multiple leading PLMs (ProtT5, ESM2, Ankh, Ankh2, and ESM3) demonstrated that the HP and PAD architectures consistently outperform conventional concatenation methods, achieving up to 12% increase in terms of Spearman correlation. These results highlight the necessity of sophisticated architectural designs to fully exploit the capabilities of PLMs for nuanced PPI binding affinity prediction.

Prediction of protein-ligand (PL) binding affinity remains the key to drug discovery. Popular approaches in recent years involve graph neural networks (GNNs), which are used to learn the topology and geometry of PL complexes. However, GNNs are computationally heavy and have poor scalability to graph sizes. On the other hand, traditional machine learning (ML) approaches, such as gradient-boosted decision trees (GBDTs), are lightweight yet extremely efficient for tabular data. We propose to use PL interaction features along with PL graph-level features in GBDT. We show that this combination outperforms the existing solutions.

Molecular docking is critical to structure-based virtual screening, yet the throughput of such workflows is limited by the expensive optimization of scoring functions involved in most docking algorithms. We explore how machine learning can accelerate this process by learning a scoring function with a functional form that allows for more rapid optimization. Specifically, we define the scoring function to be the cross-correlation of multi-channel ligand and protein scalar fields parameterized by equivariant graph neural networks, enabling rapid optimization over rigid-body degrees of freedom with fast Fourier transforms. The runtime of our approach can be amortized at several levels of abstraction, and is particularly favorable for virtual screening settings with a common binding pocket. We benchmark our scoring functions on two simplified docking-related tasks: decoy pose scoring and rigid conformer docking. Our method attains similar but faster performance on crystal structures compared to the widely-used Vina and Gnina scoring functions, and is more robust on computationally predicted structures. Code is available at https://github.com/bjing2016/scalar-fields.

Current AI-assisted protein design mainly utilizes protein sequential and structural information. Meanwhile, there exists tremendous knowledge curated by humans in the text format describing proteins' high-level properties. Yet, whether the incorporation of such text data can help protein design tasks has not been explored. To bridge this gap, we propose ProteinDT, a multi-modal framework that leverages textual descriptions for protein design. ProteinDT consists of three subsequent steps: ProteinCLAP that aligns the representation of two modalities, a facilitator that generates the protein representation from the text modality, and a decoder that generates the protein sequences from the representation. To train ProteinDT, we construct a large dataset, SwissProtCLAP, with 441K text and protein pairs. We empirically verify the effectiveness of ProteinDT from three aspects: (1) consistently superior performance on four out of six protein property prediction benchmarks; (2) over 90% accuracy for text-guided protein generation; and (3) promising results for zero-shot text-guided protein editing.

This paper introduces M^{3}-20M, a large-scale Multi-Modal Molecular dataset that contains over 20 million molecules. Designed to support AI-driven drug design and discovery, M^{3}-20M is 71 times more in the number of molecules than the largest existing dataset, providing an unprecedented scale that can highly benefit training or fine-tuning large (language) models with superior performance for drug design and discovery. This dataset integrates one-dimensional SMILES, two-dimensional molecular graphs, three-dimensional molecular structures, physicochemical properties, and textual descriptions collected through web crawling and generated by using GPT-3.5, offering a comprehensive view of each molecule. To demonstrate the power of M^{3}-20M in drug design and discovery, we conduct extensive experiments on two key tasks: molecule generation and molecular property prediction, using large language models including GLM4, GPT-3.5, and GPT-4. Our experimental results show that M^{3}-20M can significantly boost model performance in both tasks. Specifically, it enables the models to generate more diverse and valid molecular structures and achieve higher property prediction accuracy than the existing single-modal datasets, which validates the value and potential of M^{3}-20M in supporting AI-driven drug design and discovery. The dataset is available at https://github.com/bz99bz/M-3.

We introduce IntFold, a controllable foundation model for both general and specialized biomolecular structure prediction. IntFold demonstrates predictive accuracy comparable to the state-of-the-art AlphaFold3, while utilizing a superior customized attention kernel. Beyond standard structure prediction, IntFold can be adapted to predict allosteric states, constrained structures, and binding affinity through the use of individual adapters. Furthermore, we introduce a novel confidence head to estimate docking quality, offering a more nuanced assessment for challenging targets such as antibody-antigen complexes. Finally, we share insights gained during the training process of this computationally intensive model.

Neurological diseases are the leading global cause of disability, yet most lack disease-modifying treatments. We present PROTON, a heterogeneous graph transformer that generates testable hypotheses across molecular, organoid, and clinical systems. To evaluate PROTON, we apply it to Parkinson's disease (PD), bipolar disorder (BD), and Alzheimer's disease (AD). In PD, PROTON linked genetic risk loci to genes essential for dopaminergic neuron survival and predicted pesticides toxic to patient-derived neurons, including the insecticide endosulfan, which ranked within the top 1.29% of predictions. In silico screens performed by PROTON reproduced six genome-wide α-synuclein experiments, including a split-ubiquitin yeast two-hybrid system (normalized enrichment score [NES] = 2.30, FDR-adjusted p < 1 times 10^{-4}), an ascorbate peroxidase proximity labeling assay (NES = 2.16, FDR < 1 times 10^{-4}), and a high-depth targeted exome sequencing study in 496 synucleinopathy patients (NES = 2.13, FDR < 1 times 10^{-4}). In BD, PROTON predicted calcitriol as a candidate drug that reversed proteomic alterations observed in cortical organoids derived from BD patients. In AD, we evaluated PROTON predictions in health records from n = 610,524 patients at Mass General Brigham, confirming that five PROTON-predicted drugs were associated with reduced seven-year dementia risk (minimum hazard ratio = 0.63, 95% CI: 0.53-0.75, p < 1 times 10^{-7}). PROTON generated neurological hypotheses that were evaluated across molecular, organoid, and clinical systems, defining a path for AI-driven discovery in neurological disease.

We report a flexible language-model based deep learning strategy, applied here to solve complex forward and inverse problems in protein modeling, based on an attention neural network that integrates transformer and graph convolutional architectures in a causal multi-headed graph mechanism, to realize a generative pretrained model. The model is applied to predict secondary structure content (per-residue level and overall content), protein solubility, and sequencing tasks. Further trained on inverse tasks, the model is rendered capable of designing proteins with these properties as target features. The model is formulated as a general framework, completely prompt-based, and can be adapted for a variety of downstream tasks. We find that adding additional tasks yields emergent synergies that the model exploits in improving overall performance, beyond what would be possible by training a model on each dataset alone. Case studies are presented to validate the method, yielding protein designs specifically focused on structural proteins, but also exploring the applicability in the design of soluble, antimicrobial biomaterials. While our model is trained to ultimately perform 8 distinct tasks, with available datasets it can be extended to solve additional problems. In a broader sense, this work illustrates a form of multiscale modeling that relates a set of ultimate building blocks (here, byte-level utf8 characters) to complex output. This materiomic scheme captures complex emergent relationships between universal building block and resulting properties via a synergizing learning capacity to express a set of potentialities embedded in the knowledge used in training, via the interplay of universality and diversity.

Recent advancements in large language models have opened new possibilities for generative molecular drug design. We present Chemlactica and Chemma, two language models fine-tuned on a novel corpus of 110M molecules with computed properties, totaling 40B tokens. These models demonstrate strong performance in generating molecules with specified properties and predicting new molecular characteristics from limited samples. We introduce a novel optimization algorithm that leverages our language models to optimize molecules for arbitrary properties given limited access to a black box oracle. Our approach combines ideas from genetic algorithms, rejection sampling, and prompt optimization. It achieves state-of-the-art performance on multiple molecular optimization benchmarks, including an 8% improvement on Practical Molecular Optimization compared to previous methods. We publicly release the training corpus, the language models and the optimization algorithm.

Recent years have witnessed a surge in the development of protein foundation models, significantly improving performance in protein prediction and generative tasks ranging from 3D structure prediction and protein design to conformational dynamics. However, the capabilities and limitations associated with these models remain poorly understood due to the absence of a unified evaluation framework. To fill this gap, we introduce ProteinBench, a holistic evaluation framework designed to enhance the transparency of protein foundation models. Our approach consists of three key components: (i) A taxonomic classification of tasks that broadly encompass the main challenges in the protein domain, based on the relationships between different protein modalities; (ii) A multi-metric evaluation approach that assesses performance across four key dimensions: quality, novelty, diversity, and robustness; and (iii) In-depth analyses from various user objectives, providing a holistic view of model performance. Our comprehensive evaluation of protein foundation models reveals several key findings that shed light on their current capabilities and limitations. To promote transparency and facilitate further research, we release the evaluation dataset, code, and a public leaderboard publicly for further analysis and a general modular toolkit. We intend for ProteinBench to be a living benchmark for establishing a standardized, in-depth evaluation framework for protein foundation models, driving their development and application while fostering collaboration within the field.

The complementarity-determining regions of antibodies are loop structures that are key to their interactions with antigens, and of high importance to the design of novel biologics. Since the 1980s, categorizing the diversity of CDR structures into canonical clusters has enabled the identification of key structural motifs of antibodies. However, existing approaches have limited coverage and cannot be readily incorporated into protein foundation models. Here we introduce ImmunoGlobulin LOOp Tokenizer, Igloo, a multimodal antibody loop tokenizer that encodes backbone dihedral angles and sequence. Igloo is trained using a contrastive learning objective to map loops with similar backbone dihedral angles closer together in latent space. Igloo can efficiently retrieve the closest matching loop structures from a structural antibody database, outperforming existing methods on identifying similar H3 loops by 5.9\%. Igloo assigns tokens to all loops, addressing the limited coverage issue of canonical clusters, while retaining the ability to recover canonical loop conformations. To demonstrate the versatility of Igloo tokens, we show that they can be incorporated into protein language models with IglooLM and IglooALM. On predicting binding affinity of heavy chain variants, IglooLM outperforms the base protein language model on 8 out of 10 antibody-antigen targets. Additionally, it is on par with existing state-of-the-art sequence-based and multimodal protein language models, performing comparably to models with 7times more parameters. IglooALM samples antibody loops which are diverse in sequence and more consistent in structure than state-of-the-art antibody inverse folding models. Igloo demonstrates the benefit of introducing multimodal tokens for antibody loops for encoding the diverse landscape of antibody loops, improving protein foundation models, and for antibody CDR design.

The accuracy of classical force fields (FFs) has been shown to be limited for the simulation of cation-protein systems despite their importance in understanding the processes of life. Improvements can result from optimizing the parameters of classical FFs or by extending the FF formulation by terms describing charge transfer and polarization effects. In this work, we introduce our implementation of the CTPOL model in OpenMM, which extends the classical additive FF formula by adding charge transfer (CT) and polarization (POL). Furthermore, we present an open-source parameterization tool, called FFAFFURR that enables the (system specific) parameterization of OPLS-AA and CTPOL models. The performance of our workflow was evaluated by its ability to reproduce quantum chemistry energies and by molecular dynamics simulations of a Zinc finger protein.

In recent years, while natural language processing and multimodal learning have seen rapid advancements, the field of de novo protein design has also experienced significant growth. However, most current methods rely on proprietary datasets and evaluation rubrics, making fair comparisons between different approaches challenging. Moreover, these methods often employ evaluation metrics that capture only a subset of the desired properties of designed proteins, lacking a comprehensive assessment framework. To address these, we introduce PDFBench, the first comprehensive benchmark for evaluating de novo protein design from function. PDFBench supports two tasks: description-guided design and keyword-guided design. To ensure fair and multifaceted evaluation, we compile 22 metrics covering sequence plausibility, structural fidelity, and language-protein alignment, along with measures of novelty and diversity. We evaluate five state-of-the-art baselines, revealing their respective strengths and weaknesses across tasks. Finally, we analyze inter-metric correlations, exploring the relationships between four categories of metrics, and offering guidelines for metric selection. PDFBench establishes a unified framework to drive future advances in function-driven de novo protein design.

This paper demonstrates that language models are strong structure-based protein designers. We present LM-Design, a generic approach to reprogramming sequence-based protein language models (pLMs), that have learned massive sequential evolutionary knowledge from the universe of natural protein sequences, to acquire an immediate capability to design preferable protein sequences for given folds. We conduct a structural surgery on pLMs, where a lightweight structural adapter is implanted into pLMs and endows it with structural awareness. During inference, iterative refinement is performed to effectively optimize the generated protein sequences. Experiments show that LM-Design improves the state-of-the-art results by a large margin, leading to up to 4% to 12% accuracy gains in sequence recovery (e.g., 55.65%/56.63% on CATH 4.2/4.3 single-chain benchmarks, and >60% when designing protein complexes). We provide extensive and in-depth analyses, which verify that LM-Design can (1) indeed leverage both structural and sequential knowledge to accurately handle structurally non-deterministic regions, (2) benefit from scaling data and model size, and (3) generalize to other proteins (e.g., antibodies and de novo proteins)

With the advent of deep generative models in computational chemistry, in silico anticancer drug design has undergone an unprecedented transformation. While state-of-the-art deep learning approaches have shown potential in generating compounds with desired chemical properties, they disregard the genetic profile and properties of the target disease. Here, we introduce the first generative model capable of tailoring anticancer compounds for a specific biomolecular profile. Using a RL framework, the transcriptomic profiles of cancer cells are used as a context for the generation of candidate molecules. Our molecule generator combines two separately pretrained variational autoencoders (VAEs) - the first VAE encodes transcriptomic profiles into a smooth, latent space which in turn is used to condition a second VAE to generate novel molecular structures on the given transcriptomic profile. The generative process is optimized through PaccMann, a previously developed drug sensitivity prediction model to obtain effective anticancer compounds for the given context (i.e., transcriptomic profile). We demonstrate how the molecule generation can be biased towards compounds with high predicted inhibitory effect against individual cell lines or specific cancer sites. We verify our approach by investigating candidate drugs generated against specific cancer types and find the highest structural similarity to existing compounds with known efficacy against these cancer types. We envision our approach to transform in silico anticancer drug design by leveraging the biomolecular characteristics of the disease in order to increase success rates in lead compound discovery.

Molecular conformation optimization is crucial to computer-aided drug discovery and materials design. Traditional energy minimization techniques rely on iterative optimization methods that use molecular forces calculated by a physical simulator (oracle) as anti-gradients. However, this is a computationally expensive approach that requires many interactions with a physical simulator. One way to accelerate this procedure is to replace the physical simulator with a neural network. Despite recent progress in neural networks for molecular conformation energy prediction, such models are prone to distribution shift, leading to inaccurate energy minimization. We find that the quality of energy minimization with neural networks can be improved by providing optimization trajectories as additional training data. Still, it takes around 5 times 10^5 additional conformations to match the physical simulator's optimization quality. In this work, we present the Gradual Optimization Learning Framework (GOLF) for energy minimization with neural networks that significantly reduces the required additional data. The framework consists of an efficient data-collecting scheme and an external optimizer. The external optimizer utilizes gradients from the energy prediction model to generate optimization trajectories, and the data-collecting scheme selects additional training data to be processed by the physical simulator. Our results demonstrate that the neural network trained with GOLF performs on par with the oracle on a benchmark of diverse drug-like molecules using 50x less additional data.

The integration of biomolecular modeling with natural language (BL) has emerged as a promising interdisciplinary area at the intersection of artificial intelligence, chemistry and biology. This approach leverages the rich, multifaceted descriptions of biomolecules contained within textual data sources to enhance our fundamental understanding and enable downstream computational tasks such as biomolecule property prediction. The fusion of the nuanced narratives expressed through natural language with the structural and functional specifics of biomolecules described via various molecular modeling techniques opens new avenues for comprehensively representing and analyzing biomolecules. By incorporating the contextual language data that surrounds biomolecules into their modeling, BL aims to capture a holistic view encompassing both the symbolic qualities conveyed through language as well as quantitative structural characteristics. In this review, we provide an extensive analysis of recent advancements achieved through cross modeling of biomolecules and natural language. (1) We begin by outlining the technical representations of biomolecules employed, including sequences, 2D graphs, and 3D structures. (2) We then examine in depth the rationale and key objectives underlying effective multi-modal integration of language and molecular data sources. (3) We subsequently survey the practical applications enabled to date in this developing research area. (4) We also compile and summarize the available resources and datasets to facilitate future work. (5) Looking ahead, we identify several promising research directions worthy of further exploration and investment to continue advancing the field. The related resources and contents are updating in https://github.com/QizhiPei/Awesome-Biomolecule-Language-Cross-Modeling.

We study the problem of extrapolative controlled generation, i.e., generating sequences with attribute values beyond the range seen in training. This task is of significant importance in automated design, especially drug discovery, where the goal is to design novel proteins that are better (e.g., more stable) than existing sequences. Thus, by definition, the target sequences and their attribute values are out of the training distribution, posing challenges to existing methods that aim to directly generate the target sequence. Instead, in this work, we propose Iterative Controlled Extrapolation (ICE) which iteratively makes local edits to a sequence to enable extrapolation. We train the model on synthetically generated sequence pairs that demonstrate small improvement in the attribute value. Results on one natural language task (sentiment analysis) and two protein engineering tasks (ACE2 stability and AAV fitness) show that ICE considerably outperforms state-of-the-art approaches despite its simplicity. Our code and models are available at: https://github.com/vishakhpk/iter-extrapolation.

While artificial intelligence has made remarkable strides in revealing the relationship between biological macromolecules' primary sequence and tertiary structure, designing RNA sequences based on specified tertiary structures remains challenging. Though existing approaches in protein design have thoroughly explored structure-to-sequence dependencies in proteins, RNA design still confronts difficulties due to structural complexity and data scarcity. Moreover, direct transplantation of protein design methodologies into RNA design fails to achieve satisfactory outcomes although sharing similar structural components. In this study, we aim to systematically construct a data-driven RNA design pipeline. We crafted a large, well-curated benchmark dataset and designed a comprehensive structural modeling approach to represent the complex RNA tertiary structure. More importantly, we proposed a hierarchical data-efficient representation learning framework that learns structural representations through contrastive learning at both cluster-level and sample-level to fully leverage the limited data. By constraining data representations within a limited hyperspherical space, the intrinsic relationships between data points could be explicitly imposed. Moreover, we incorporated extracted secondary structures with base pairs as prior knowledge to facilitate the RNA design process. Extensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed method, providing a reliable baseline for future RNA design tasks. The source code and benchmark dataset are available at https://github.com/A4Bio/RDesign.

We study the problem of optimizing biological sequences, e.g., proteins, DNA, and RNA, to maximize a black-box score function that is only evaluated in an offline dataset. We propose a novel solution, bootstrapped training of score-conditioned generator (BootGen) algorithm. Our algorithm repeats a two-stage process. In the first stage, our algorithm trains the biological sequence generator with rank-based weights to enhance the accuracy of sequence generation based on high scores. The subsequent stage involves bootstrapping, which augments the training dataset with self-generated data labeled by a proxy score function. Our key idea is to align the score-based generation with a proxy score function, which distills the knowledge of the proxy score function to the generator. After training, we aggregate samples from multiple bootstrapped generators and proxies to produce a diverse design. Extensive experiments show that our method outperforms competitive baselines on biological sequential design tasks. We provide reproducible source code: https://github.com/kaist-silab/bootgen{https://github.com/kaist-silab/bootgen}.

Recently, many generative models for de novo protein structure design have emerged. Yet, only few tackle the difficult task of directly generating fully atomistic structures jointly with the underlying amino acid sequence. This is challenging, for instance, because the model must reason over side chains that change in length during generation. We introduce La-Proteina for atomistic protein design based on a novel partially latent protein representation: coarse backbone structure is modeled explicitly, while sequence and atomistic details are captured via per-residue latent variables of fixed dimensionality, thereby effectively side-stepping challenges of explicit side-chain representations. Flow matching in this partially latent space then models the joint distribution over sequences and full-atom structures. La-Proteina achieves state-of-the-art performance on multiple generation benchmarks, including all-atom co-designability, diversity, and structural validity, as confirmed through detailed structural analyses and evaluations. Notably, La-Proteina also surpasses previous models in atomistic motif scaffolding performance, unlocking critical atomistic structure-conditioned protein design tasks. Moreover, La-Proteina is able to generate co-designable proteins of up to 800 residues, a regime where most baselines collapse and fail to produce valid samples, demonstrating La-Proteina's scalability and robustness.

Despite recent advancements, most computational methods for molecule optimization are constrained to single- or double-property optimization tasks and suffer from poor scalability and generalizability to novel optimization tasks. Meanwhile, Large Language Models (LLMs) demonstrate remarkable out-of-domain generalizability to novel tasks. To demonstrate LLMs' potential for molecule optimization, we introduce MoMUInstruct, the first high-quality instruction-tuning dataset specifically focused on complex multi-property molecule optimization tasks. Leveraging MoMUInstruct, we develop GeLLM^3Os, a series of instruction-tuned LLMs for molecule optimization. Extensive evaluations across 5 in-domain and 5 out-of-domain tasks demonstrate that GeLLM^3Os consistently outperform state-of-the-art baselines. GeLLM^3Os also exhibit outstanding zero-shot generalization to unseen tasks, significantly outperforming powerful closed-source LLMs. Such strong generalizability demonstrates the tremendous potential of GeLLM^3Os as foundational models for molecule optimization, thereby tackling novel optimization tasks without resource-intensive retraining. MoMUInstruct, models, and code are accessible through https://github.com/ninglab/GeLLMO.

Artificial intelligence (AI)-driven methods can vastly improve the historically costly drug design process, with various generative models already in widespread use. Generative models for de novo drug design, in particular, focus on the creation of novel biological compounds entirely from scratch, representing a promising future direction. Rapid development in the field, combined with the inherent complexity of the drug design process, creates a difficult landscape for new researchers to enter. In this survey, we organize de novo drug design into two overarching themes: small molecule and protein generation. Within each theme, we identify a variety of subtasks and applications, highlighting important datasets, benchmarks, and model architectures and comparing the performance of top models. We take a broad approach to AI-driven drug design, allowing for both micro-level comparisons of various methods within each subtask and macro-level observations across different fields. We discuss parallel challenges and approaches between the two applications and highlight future directions for AI-driven de novo drug design as a whole. An organized repository of all covered sources is available at https://github.com/gersteinlab/GenAI4Drug.

Target proteins that lack accessible binding pockets and conformational stability have posed increasing challenges for drug development. Induced proximity strategies, such as PROTACs and molecular glues, have thus gained attention as pharmacological alternatives, but still require small molecule docking at binding pockets for targeted protein degradation (TPD). The computational design of protein-based binders presents unique opportunities to access undruggable targets, but have often relied on stable 3D structures or predictions for effective binder generation. Recently, we have leveraged the expressive latent spaces of protein language models (pLMs) for the prioritization of peptide binders from sequence alone, which we have then fused to E3 ubiquitin ligase domains, creating a CRISPR-analogous TPD system for target proteins. However, our methods rely on training discriminator models for ranking heuristically or unconditionally-derived guide peptides for their target binding capability. In this work, we introduce PepMLM, a purely target sequence-conditioned de novo generator of linear peptide binders. By employing a novel masking strategy that uniquely positions cognate peptide sequences at the terminus of target protein sequences, PepMLM tasks the state-of-the-art ESM-2 pLM to fully reconstruct the binder region, achieving low perplexities matching or improving upon previously-validated peptide-protein sequence pairs. After successful in silico benchmarking with AlphaFold-Multimer, we experimentally verify PepMLM's efficacy via fusion of model-derived peptides to E3 ubiquitin ligase domains, demonstrating endogenous degradation of target substrates in cellular models. In total, PepMLM enables the generative design of candidate binders to any target protein, without the requirement of target structure, empowering downstream programmable proteome editing applications.

Molecular docking is a key computational tool utilized to predict the binding conformations of small molecules to protein targets, which is fundamental in the design of novel drugs. Despite recent advancements in geometric deep learning-based approaches leading to improvements in blind docking efficiency, these methods have encountered notable challenges, such as limited generalization performance on unseen proteins, the inability to concurrently address the settings of blind docking and site-specific docking, and the frequent occurrence of physical implausibilities such as inter-molecular steric clash. In this study, we introduce DeltaDock, a robust and versatile framework designed for efficient molecular docking to overcome these challenges. DeltaDock operates in a two-step process: rapid initial complex structures sampling followed by multi-scale iterative refinement of the initial structures. In the initial stage, to sample accurate structures with high efficiency, we develop a ligand-dependent binding site prediction model founded on large protein models and graph neural networks. This model is then paired with GPU-accelerated sampling algorithms. The sampled structures are updated using a multi-scale iterative refinement module that captures both protein-ligand atom-atom interactions and residue-atom interactions in the following stage. Distinct from previous geometric deep learning methods that are conditioned on the blind docking setting, DeltaDock demonstrates superior performance in both blind docking and site-specific docking settings. Comprehensive experimental results reveal that DeltaDock consistently surpasses baseline methods in terms of docking accuracy. Furthermore, it displays remarkable generalization capabilities and proficiency for predicting physically valid structures, thereby attesting to its robustness and reliability in various scenarios.

Machine learning force fields (MLFF) have been proposed to accelerate molecular dynamics (MD) simulation, which finds widespread applications in chemistry and biomedical research. Even for the most data-efficient MLFFs, reaching chemical accuracy can require hundreds of frames of force and energy labels generated by expensive quantum mechanical algorithms, which may scale as O(n^3) to O(n^7), with n proportional to the number of basis functions. To address this issue, we propose a multi-stage computational framework -- ASTEROID, which lowers the data cost of MLFFs by leveraging a combination of cheap inaccurate data and expensive accurate data. The motivation behind ASTEROID is that inaccurate data, though incurring large bias, can help capture the sophisticated structures of the underlying force field. Therefore, we first train a MLFF model on a large amount of inaccurate training data, employing a bias-aware loss function to prevent the model from overfitting tahe potential bias of this data. We then fine-tune the obtained model using a small amount of accurate training data, which preserves the knowledge learned from the inaccurate training data while significantly improving the model's accuracy. Moreover, we propose a variant of ASTEROID based on score matching for the setting where the inaccurate training data are unlabeled. Extensive experiments on MD datasets and downstream tasks validate the efficacy of ASTEROID. Our code and data are available at https://github.com/abukharin3/asteroid.

The transformer architecture has revolutionized bioinformatics and driven progress in the understanding and prediction of the properties of biomolecules. Almost all research on large-scale biosequence transformers has focused on one domain at a time (single-omic), usually nucleotides or peptides. These models have seen incredible success in downstream tasks in each domain and have achieved particularly noteworthy breakthroughs in sequences of peptides and structural modeling. However, these single-omic models are naturally incapable of modeling multi-omic tasks, one of the most biologically critical being nucleotide-peptide interactions. We present our work training the first multi-omic nucleotide-peptide foundation models. We show that these multi-omic models (MOMs) can learn joint representations between various single-omic distributions that are emergently consistent with the Central Dogma of molecular biology, despite only being trained on unlabeled biosequences. We further demonstrate that MOMs can be fine-tuned to achieve state-of-the-art results on peptide-nucleotide interaction tasks, namely predicting the change in Gibbs free energy ({\Delta}G) of the binding interaction between a given oligonucleotide and peptide, as well as the effect on this binding interaction due to mutations in the oligonucleotide sequence ({\Delta}{\Delta}G). Remarkably, we show that multi-omic biosequence transformers emergently learn useful structural information without any prior structural training, allowing us to predict which peptide residues are most involved in the peptide-nucleotide binding interaction. Lastly, we provide evidence that multi-omic biosequence models are non-inferior to foundation models trained on single-omics distributions, suggesting a more generalized or foundational approach to building these models.

Pocket representations play a vital role in various biomedical applications, such as druggability estimation, ligand affinity prediction, and de novo drug design. While existing geometric features and pretrained representations have demonstrated promising results, they usually treat pockets independent of ligands, neglecting the fundamental interactions between them. However, the limited pocket-ligand complex structures available in the PDB database (less than 100 thousand non-redundant pairs) hampers large-scale pretraining endeavors for interaction modeling. To address this constraint, we propose a novel pocket pretraining approach that leverages knowledge from high-resolution atomic protein structures, assisted by highly effective pretrained small molecule representations. By segmenting protein structures into drug-like fragments and their corresponding pockets, we obtain a reasonable simulation of ligand-receptor interactions, resulting in the generation of over 5 million complexes. Subsequently, the pocket encoder is trained in a contrastive manner to align with the representation of pseudo-ligand furnished by some pretrained small molecule encoders. Our method, named ProFSA, achieves state-of-the-art performance across various tasks, including pocket druggability prediction, pocket matching, and ligand binding affinity prediction. Notably, ProFSA surpasses other pretraining methods by a substantial margin. Moreover, our work opens up a new avenue for mitigating the scarcity of protein-ligand complex data through the utilization of high-quality and diverse protein structure databases.

Spider silks are remarkable materials characterized by superb mechanical properties such as strength, extensibility and lightweightedness. Yet, to date, limited models are available to fully explore sequence-property relationships for analysis and design. Here we propose a custom generative large-language model to enable design of novel spider silk protein sequences to meet complex combinations of target mechanical properties. The model, pretrained on a large set of protein sequences, is fine-tuned on ~1,000 major ampullate spidroin (MaSp) sequences for which associated fiber-level mechanical properties exist, to yield an end-to-end forward and inverse generative strategy. Performance is assessed through: (1), a novelty analysis and protein type classification for generated spidroin sequences through BLAST searches, (2) property evaluation and comparison with similar sequences, (3) comparison of molecular structures, as well as, and (4) a detailed sequence motif analyses. We generate silk sequences with property combinations that do not exist in nature, and develop a deep understanding the mechanistic roles of sequence patterns in achieving overarching key mechanical properties (elastic modulus, strength, toughness, failure strain). The model provides an efficient approach to expand the silkome dataset, facilitating further sequence-structure analyses of silks, and establishes a foundation for synthetic silk design and optimization.

Recent research trends in computational biology have increasingly focused on integrating text and bio-entity modeling, especially in the context of molecules and proteins. However, previous efforts like BioT5 faced challenges in generalizing across diverse tasks and lacked a nuanced understanding of molecular structures, particularly in their textual representations (e.g., IUPAC). This paper introduces BioT5+, an extension of the BioT5 framework, tailored to enhance biological research and drug discovery. BioT5+ incorporates several novel features: integration of IUPAC names for molecular understanding, inclusion of extensive bio-text and molecule data from sources like bioRxiv and PubChem, the multi-task instruction tuning for generality across tasks, and a novel numerical tokenization technique for improved processing of numerical data. These enhancements allow BioT5+ to bridge the gap between molecular representations and their textual descriptions, providing a more holistic understanding of biological entities, and largely improving the grounded reasoning of bio-text and bio-sequences. The model is pre-trained and fine-tuned with a large number of experiments, including 3 types of problems (classification, regression, generation), 15 kinds of tasks, and 21 total benchmark datasets, demonstrating the remarkable performance and state-of-the-art results in most cases. BioT5+ stands out for its ability to capture intricate relationships in biological data, thereby contributing significantly to bioinformatics and computational biology. Our code is available at https://github.com/QizhiPei/BioT5.

Multimodal molecular models often suffer from 3D conformer unreliability and modality collapse, limiting their robustness and generalization. We propose MuMo, a structured multimodal fusion framework that addresses these challenges in molecular representation through two key strategies. To reduce the instability of conformer-dependent fusion, we design a Structured Fusion Pipeline (SFP) that combines 2D topology and 3D geometry into a unified and stable structural prior. To mitigate modality collapse caused by naive fusion, we introduce a Progressive Injection (PI) mechanism that asymmetrically integrates this prior into the sequence stream, preserving modality-specific modeling while enabling cross-modal enrichment. Built on a state space backbone, MuMo supports long-range dependency modeling and robust information propagation. Across 29 benchmark tasks from Therapeutics Data Commons (TDC) and MoleculeNet, MuMo achieves an average improvement of 2.7% over the best-performing baseline on each task, ranking first on 22 of them, including a 27% improvement on the LD50 task. These results validate its robustness to 3D conformer noise and the effectiveness of multimodal fusion in molecular representation. The code is available at: github.com/selmiss/MuMo.

The development of reliable and extensible molecular mechanics (MM) force fields -- fast, empirical models characterizing the potential energy surface of molecular systems -- is indispensable for biomolecular simulation and computer-aided drug design. Here, we introduce a generalized and extensible machine-learned MM force field, espaloma-0.3, and an end-to-end differentiable framework using graph neural networks to overcome the limitations of traditional rule-based methods. Trained in a single GPU-day to fit a large and diverse quantum chemical dataset of over 1.1M energy and force calculations, espaloma-0.3 reproduces quantum chemical energetic properties of chemical domains highly relevant to drug discovery, including small molecules, peptides, and nucleic acids. Moreover, this force field maintains the quantum chemical energy-minimized geometries of small molecules and preserves the condensed phase properties of peptides, self-consistently parametrizing proteins and ligands to produce stable simulations leading to highly accurate predictions of binding free energies. This methodology demonstrates significant promise as a path forward for systematically building more accurate force fields that are easily extensible to new chemical domains of interest.

Coarse-grained (CG) molecular models of proteins can substantially increase the time and length scales accessible to molecular dynamics simulations of proteins, but recovery of accurate all-atom (AA) ensembles from CG simulation trajectories can be essential for exposing molecular mechanisms of folding and docking and for calculation of physical properties requiring atomistic detail. The recently reported deep generative model FlowBack restores AA detail to protein C-alpha traces using a flow-matching architecture and demonstrates state-of-the-art performance in generation of AA structural ensembles. Training, however, is performed exclusively on structural data and the absence of any awareness of interatomic energies or forces within training results in small fractions of incorrect bond lengths, atomic clashes, and otherwise high-energy structures. In this work, we introduce FlowBack-Adjoint as a lightweight enhancement that upgrades the pre-trained FlowBack model through a one-time, physics-aware post-training pass. Auxiliary contributions to the flow introduce physical awareness of bond lengths and Lennard-Jones interactions and gradients of a molecular mechanics force field energy are incorporated via adjoint matching to steer the FlowBack-Adjoint vector field to produce lower-energy configurations. In benchmark tests against FlowBack, FlowBack-Adjoint lowers single-point energies by a median of ~78 kcal/mol.residue, reduces errors in bond lengths by >92%, eliminates >98% of molecular clashes, maintains excellent diversity of the AA configurational ensemble, and produces configurations capable of initializing stable all-atom molecular dynamics simulations without requiring energy relaxation. We propose FlowBack-Adjoint as an accurate and efficient physics-aware deep generative model for AA backmapping from C-alpha traces.

We describe the accurate prediction of ligand-protein interaction (LPI) affinities, also known as drug-target interactions (DTI), with instruction fine-tuned pretrained generative small language models (SLMs). We achieved accurate predictions for a range of affinity values associated with ligand-protein interactions on out-of-sample data in a zero-shot setting. Only the SMILES string of the ligand and the amino acid sequence of the protein were used as the model inputs. Our results demonstrate a clear improvement over machine learning (ML) and free-energy perturbation (FEP+) based methods in accurately predicting a range of ligand-protein interaction affinities, which can be leveraged to further accelerate drug discovery campaigns against challenging therapeutic targets.

Traditional drug design faces significant challenges due to inherent chemical and biological complexities, often resulting in high failure rates in clinical trials. Deep learning advancements, particularly generative models, offer potential solutions to these challenges. One promising algorithm is DrugGPT, a transformer-based model, that generates small molecules for input protein sequences. Although promising, it generates both chemically valid and invalid structures and does not incorporate the features of approved drugs, resulting in time-consuming and inefficient drug discovery. To address these issues, we introduce DrugGen, an enhanced model based on the DrugGPT structure. DrugGen is fine-tuned on approved drug-target interactions and optimized with proximal policy optimization. By giving reward feedback from protein-ligand binding affinity prediction using pre-trained transformers (PLAPT) and a customized invalid structure assessor, DrugGen significantly improves performance. Evaluation across multiple targets demonstrated that DrugGen achieves 100% valid structure generation compared to 95.5% with DrugGPT and produced molecules with higher predicted binding affinities (7.22 [6.30-8.07]) compared to DrugGPT (5.81 [4.97-6.63]) while maintaining diversity and novelty. Docking simulations further validate its ability to generate molecules targeting binding sites effectively. For example, in the case of fatty acid-binding protein 5 (FABP5), DrugGen generated molecules with superior docking scores (FABP5/11, -9.537 and FABP5/5, -8.399) compared to the reference molecule (Palmitic acid, -6.177). Beyond lead compound generation, DrugGen also shows potential for drug repositioning and creating novel pharmacophores for existing targets. By producing high-quality small molecules, DrugGen provides a high-performance medium for advancing pharmaceutical research and drug discovery.

Diffusion- and flow-based generative models have recently demonstrated strong performance in protein backbone generation tasks, offering unprecedented capabilities for de novo protein design. However, while achieving notable performance in generation quality, these models are limited by their generating speed, often requiring hundreds of iterative steps in the reverse-diffusion process. This computational bottleneck limits their practical utility in large-scale protein discovery, where thousands to millions of candidate structures are needed. To address this challenge, we explore the techniques of score distillation, which has shown great success in reducing the number of sampling steps in the vision domain while maintaining high generation quality. However, a straightforward adaptation of these methods results in unacceptably low designability. Through extensive study, we have identified how to appropriately adapt Score identity Distillation (SiD), a state-of-the-art score distillation strategy, to train few-step protein backbone generators which significantly reduce sampling time, while maintaining comparable performance to their pretrained teacher model. In particular, multistep generation combined with inference time noise modulation is key to the success. We demonstrate that our distilled few-step generators achieve more than a 20-fold improvement in sampling speed, while achieving similar levels of designability, diversity, and novelty as the Proteina teacher model. This reduction in inference cost enables large-scale in silico protein design, thereby bringing diffusion-based models closer to real-world protein engineering applications. The PyTorch implementation is available at https://github.com/LY-Xie/SiD_Protein

The core challenge of de novo protein design lies in creating proteins with specific functions or properties, guided by certain conditions. Current models explore to generate protein using structural and evolutionary guidance, which only provide indirect conditions concerning functions and properties. However, textual annotations of proteins, especially the annotations for protein domains, which directly describe the protein's high-level functionalities, properties, and their correlation with target amino acid sequences, remain unexplored in the context of protein design tasks. In this paper, we propose Protein-Annotation Alignment Generation, PAAG, a multi-modality protein design framework that integrates the textual annotations extracted from protein database for controllable generation in sequence space. Specifically, within a multi-level alignment module, PAAG can explicitly generate proteins containing specific domains conditioned on the corresponding domain annotations, and can even design novel proteins with flexible combinations of different kinds of annotations. Our experimental results underscore the superiority of the aligned protein representations from PAAG over 7 prediction tasks. Furthermore, PAAG demonstrates a significant increase in generation success rate (24.7% vs 4.7% in zinc finger, and 54.3% vs 22.0% in the immunoglobulin domain) in comparison to the existing model. We anticipate that PAAG will broaden the horizons of protein design by leveraging the knowledge from between textual annotation and proteins.

Machine Learning Force Fields (MLFFs) are a promising alternative to expensive ab initio quantum mechanical molecular simulations. Given the diversity of chemical spaces that are of interest and the cost of generating new data, it is important to understand how MLFFs generalize beyond their training distributions. In order to characterize and better understand distribution shifts in MLFFs, we conduct diagnostic experiments on chemical datasets, revealing common shifts that pose significant challenges, even for large foundation models trained on extensive data. Based on these observations, we hypothesize that current supervised training methods inadequately regularize MLFFs, resulting in overfitting and learning poor representations of out-of-distribution systems. We then propose two new methods as initial steps for mitigating distribution shifts for MLFFs. Our methods focus on test-time refinement strategies that incur minimal computational cost and do not use expensive ab initio reference labels. The first strategy, based on spectral graph theory, modifies the edges of test graphs to align with graph structures seen during training. Our second strategy improves representations for out-of-distribution systems at test-time by taking gradient steps using an auxiliary objective, such as a cheap physical prior. Our test-time refinement strategies significantly reduce errors on out-of-distribution systems, suggesting that MLFFs are capable of and can move towards modeling diverse chemical spaces, but are not being effectively trained to do so. Our experiments establish clear benchmarks for evaluating the generalization capabilities of the next generation of MLFFs. Our code is available at https://tkreiman.github.io/projects/mlff_distribution_shifts/.

The last few years have seen the development of numerous deep learning-based protein-ligand docking methods. They offer huge promise in terms of speed and accuracy. However, despite claims of state-of-the-art performance in terms of crystallographic root-mean-square deviation (RMSD), upon closer inspection, it has become apparent that they often produce physically implausible molecular structures. It is therefore not sufficient to evaluate these methods solely by RMSD to a native binding mode. It is vital, particularly for deep learning-based methods, that they are also evaluated on steric and energetic criteria. We present PoseBusters, a Python package that performs a series of standard quality checks using the well-established cheminformatics toolkit RDKit. Only methods that both pass these checks and predict native-like binding modes should be classed as having "state-of-the-art" performance. We use PoseBusters to compare five deep learning-based docking methods (DeepDock, DiffDock, EquiBind, TankBind, and Uni-Mol) and two well-established standard docking methods (AutoDock Vina and CCDC Gold) with and without an additional post-prediction energy minimisation step using a molecular mechanics force field. We show that both in terms of physical plausibility and the ability to generalise to examples that are distinct from the training data, no deep learning-based method yet outperforms classical docking tools. In addition, we find that molecular mechanics force fields contain docking-relevant physics missing from deep-learning methods. PoseBusters allows practitioners to assess docking and molecular generation methods and may inspire new inductive biases still required to improve deep learning-based methods, which will help drive the development of more accurate and more realistic predictions.

De novo design seeks to generate molecules with required property profiles by virtual design-make-test cycles. With the emergence of deep learning and neural generative models in many application areas, models for molecular design based on neural networks appeared recently and show promising results. However, the new models have not been profiled on consistent tasks, and comparative studies to well-established algorithms have only seldom been performed. To standardize the assessment of both classical and neural models for de novo molecular design, we propose an evaluation framework, GuacaMol, based on a suite of standardized benchmarks. The benchmark tasks encompass measuring the fidelity of the models to reproduce the property distribution of the training sets, the ability to generate novel molecules, the exploration and exploitation of chemical space, and a variety of single and multi-objective optimization tasks. The benchmarking open-source Python code, and a leaderboard can be found on https://benevolent.ai/guacamol

We introduce AMix-1, a powerful protein foundation model built on Bayesian Flow Networks and empowered by a systematic training methodology, encompassing pretraining scaling laws, emergent capability analysis, in-context learning mechanism, and test-time scaling algorithm. To guarantee robust scalability, we establish a predictive scaling law and reveal the progressive emergence of structural understanding via loss perspective, culminating in a strong 1.7-billion model. Building on this foundation, we devise a multiple sequence alignment (MSA)-based in-context learning strategy to unify protein design into a general framework, where AMix-1 recognizes deep evolutionary signals among MSAs and consistently generates structurally and functionally coherent proteins. This framework enables the successful design of a dramatically improved AmeR variant with an up to 50times activity increase over its wild type. Pushing the boundaries of protein engineering, we further empower AMix-1 with an evolutionary test-time scaling algorithm for in silico directed evolution that delivers substantial, scalable performance gains as verification budgets are intensified, laying the groundwork for next-generation lab-in-the-loop protein design.

Virtual cell modeling represents an emerging frontier at the intersection of artificial intelligence and biology, aiming to predict quantities such as responses to diverse perturbations quantitatively. However, autonomously building computational models for virtual cells is challenging due to the complexity of biological systems, the heterogeneity of data modalities, and the need for domain-specific expertise across multiple disciplines. Here, we introduce CellForge, an agentic system that leverages a multi-agent framework that transforms presented biological datasets and research objectives directly into optimized computational models for virtual cells. More specifically, given only raw single-cell multi-omics data and task descriptions as input, CellForge outputs both an optimized model architecture and executable code for training virtual cell models and inference. The framework integrates three core modules: Task Analysis for presented dataset characterization and relevant literature retrieval, Method Design, where specialized agents collaboratively develop optimized modeling strategies, and Experiment Execution for automated generation of code. The agents in the Design module are separated into experts with differing perspectives and a central moderator, and have to collaboratively exchange solutions until they achieve a reasonable consensus. We demonstrate CellForge's capabilities in single-cell perturbation prediction, using six diverse datasets that encompass gene knockouts, drug treatments, and cytokine stimulations across multiple modalities. CellForge consistently outperforms task-specific state-of-the-art methods. Overall, CellForge demonstrates how iterative interaction between LLM agents with differing perspectives provides better solutions than directly addressing a modeling challenge. Our code is publicly available at https://github.com/gersteinlab/CellForge.

Progress in computer-aided synthesis planning (CASP) is obscured by the lack of standardized evaluation infrastructure and the reliance on metrics that prioritize topological completion over chemical validity. We introduce RetroCast, a unified evaluation suite that standardizes heterogeneous model outputs into a common schema to enable statistically rigorous, apples-to-apples comparison. The framework includes a reproducible benchmarking pipeline with stratified sampling and bootstrapped confidence intervals, accompanied by SynthArena, an interactive platform for qualitative route inspection. We utilize this infrastructure to evaluate leading search-based and sequence-based algorithms on a new suite of standardized benchmarks. Our analysis reveals a divergence between "solvability" (stock-termination rate) and route quality; high solvability scores often mask chemical invalidity or fail to correlate with the reproduction of experimental ground truths. Furthermore, we identify a "complexity cliff" in which search-based methods, despite high solvability rates, exhibit a sharp performance decay in reconstructing long-range synthetic plans compared to sequence-based approaches. We release the full framework, benchmark definitions, and a standardized database of model predictions to support transparent and reproducible development in the field.

Structure-Based Drug Design (SBDD) is a powerful strategy in computational drug discovery, utilizing three-dimensional protein structures to guide the design of molecules with improved binding affinity. However, capturing complex protein-ligand interactions across multiple scales remains challenging, as current methods often overlook the hierarchical organization and intrinsic asymmetry of these interactions. To address these limitations, we propose MSCoD, a novel Bayesian updating-based generative framework for structure-based drug design. In our MSCoD, Multi-Scale Information Bottleneck (MSIB) was developed, which enables semantic compression at multiple abstraction levels for efficient hierarchical feature extraction. Furthermore, a multi-head cooperative attention (MHCA) mechanism was developed, which employs asymmetric protein-to-ligand attention to capture diverse interaction types while addressing the dimensionality disparity between proteins and ligands. Empirical studies showed that MSCoD outperforms state-of-the-art methods on the benchmark dataset. Case studies on challenging targets such as KRAS G12D further demonstrate its applicability in real-world scenarios. The code and data underlying this article are freely available at https://github.com/xulong0826/MSCoD.

Recently, significant progress has been made in protein-ligand docking, especially in modern deep learning methods, and some benchmarks were proposed, e.g., PoseBench, Plinder. However, these benchmarks suffer from less practical evaluation setups (e.g., blind docking, self docking), or heavy framework that involves training, raising challenges to assess docking methods efficiently. To fill this gap, we proposed PoseX, an open-source benchmark focusing on self-docking and cross-docking, to evaluate the algorithmic advances practically and comprehensively. Specifically, first, we curate a new evaluation dataset with 718 entries for self docking and 1,312 for cross docking; second, we incorporate 22 docking methods across three methodological categories, including (1) traditional physics-based methods (e.g., Schr\"odinger Glide), (2) AI docking methods (e.g., DiffDock), (3) AI co-folding methods (e.g., AlphaFold3); third, we design a relaxation method as post-processing to minimize conformation energy and refine binding pose; fourth, we released a leaderboard to rank submitted models in real time. We draw some key insights via extensive experiments: (1) AI-based approaches have already surpassed traditional physics-based approaches in overall docking accuracy (RMSD). The longstanding generalization issues that have plagued AI molecular docking have been significantly alleviated in the latest models. (2) The stereochemical deficiencies of AI-based approaches can be greatly alleviated with post-processing relaxation. Combining AI docking methods with the enhanced relaxation method achieves the best performance to date. (3) AI co-folding methods commonly face ligand chirality issues, which cannot be resolved by relaxation. The code, curated dataset and leaderboard are released at https://github.com/CataAI/PoseX.

Machine-learned force fields have transformed the atomistic modelling of materials by enabling simulations of ab initio quality on unprecedented time and length scales. However, they are currently limited by: (i) the significant computational and human effort that must go into development and validation of potentials for each particular system of interest; and (ii) a general lack of transferability from one chemical system to the next. Here, using the state-of-the-art MACE architecture we introduce a single general-purpose ML model, trained on a public database of 150k inorganic crystals, that is capable of running stable molecular dynamics on molecules and materials. We demonstrate the power of the MACE-MP-0 model -- and its qualitative and at times quantitative accuracy -- on a diverse set problems in the physical sciences, including the properties of solids, liquids, gases, and chemical reactions. The model can be applied out of the box and as a starting or "foundation model" for any atomistic system of interest and is thus a step towards democratising the revolution of ML force fields by lowering the barriers to entry.

Predicting drug-target interaction (DTI) is critical in the drug discovery process. Despite remarkable advances in recent DTI models through the integration of representations from diverse drug and target encoders, such models often struggle to capture the fine-grained interactions between drugs and protein, i.e. the binding of specific drug atoms (or substructures) and key amino acids of proteins, which is crucial for understanding the binding mechanisms and optimising drug design. To address this issue, this paper introduces a novel model, called FusionDTI, which uses a token-level Fusion module to effectively learn fine-grained information for Drug-Target Interaction. In particular, our FusionDTI model uses the SELFIES representation of drugs to mitigate sequence fragment invalidation and incorporates the structure-aware (SA) vocabulary of target proteins to address the limitation of amino acid sequences in structural information, additionally leveraging pre-trained language models extensively trained on large-scale biomedical datasets as encoders to capture the complex information of drugs and targets. Experiments on three well-known benchmark datasets show that our proposed FusionDTI model achieves the best performance in DTI prediction compared with seven existing state-of-the-art baselines. Furthermore, our case study indicates that FusionDTI could highlight the potential binding sites, enhancing the explainability of the DTI prediction.

Drug discovery typically consists of multiple steps, including identifying a target protein key to a disease's etiology, validating that interacting with this target could prevent symptoms or cure the disease, discovering a small molecule or biologic therapeutic to interact with it, and optimizing the candidate molecule through a complex landscape of required properties. Drug discovery related tasks often involve prediction and generation while considering multiple entities that potentially interact, which poses a challenge for typical AI models. For this purpose we present MAMMAL - Molecular Aligned Multi-Modal Architecture and Language - a method that we applied to create a versatile multi-task foundation model ibm/biomed.omics.bl.sm.ma-ted-458m that learns from large-scale biological datasets (2 billion samples) across diverse modalities, including proteins, small molecules, and genes. We introduce a prompt syntax that supports a wide range of classification, regression, and generation tasks. It allows combining different modalities and entity types as inputs and/or outputs. Our model handles combinations of tokens and scalars and enables the generation of small molecules and proteins, property prediction, and transcriptomic lab test predictions. We evaluated the model on 11 diverse downstream tasks spanning different steps within a typical drug discovery pipeline, where it reaches new SOTA in 9 tasks and is comparable to SOTA in 2 tasks. This performance is achieved while using a unified architecture serving all tasks, in contrast to the original SOTA performance achieved using tailored architectures. The model code and pretrained weights are publicly available at https://github.com/BiomedSciAI/biomed-multi-alignment and https://huggingface.co/ibm/biomed.omics.bl.sm.ma-ted-458m.

Protein language models have shown remarkable success in learning biological information from protein sequences. However, most existing models are limited by either autoencoding or autoregressive pre-training objectives, which makes them struggle to handle protein understanding and generation tasks concurrently. We propose a unified protein language model, xTrimoPGLM, to address these two types of tasks simultaneously through an innovative pre-training framework. Our key technical contribution is an exploration of the compatibility and the potential for joint optimization of the two types of objectives, which has led to a strategy for training xTrimoPGLM at an unprecedented scale of 100 billion parameters and 1 trillion training tokens. Our extensive experiments reveal that 1) xTrimoPGLM significantly outperforms other advanced baselines in 18 protein understanding benchmarks across four categories. The model also facilitates an atomic-resolution view of protein structures, leading to an advanced 3D structural prediction model that surpasses existing language model-based tools. 2) xTrimoPGLM not only can generate de novo protein sequences following the principles of natural ones, but also can perform programmable generation after supervised fine-tuning (SFT) on curated sequences. These results highlight the substantial capability and versatility of xTrimoPGLM in understanding and generating protein sequences, contributing to the evolving landscape of foundation models in protein science.

Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation is a widely used technique to simulate molecular systems, most commonly at the all-atom resolution where equations of motion are integrated with timesteps on the order of femtoseconds (1fs=10^{-15}s). MD is often used to compute equilibrium properties, which requires sampling from an equilibrium distribution such as the Boltzmann distribution. However, many important processes, such as binding and folding, occur over timescales of milliseconds or beyond, and cannot be efficiently sampled with conventional MD. Furthermore, new MD simulations need to be performed for each molecular system studied. We present Timewarp, an enhanced sampling method which uses a normalising flow as a proposal distribution in a Markov chain Monte Carlo method targeting the Boltzmann distribution. The flow is trained offline on MD trajectories and learns to make large steps in time, simulating the molecular dynamics of 10^{5} - 10^{6}:fs. Crucially, Timewarp is transferable between molecular systems: once trained, we show that it generalises to unseen small peptides (2-4 amino acids) at all-atom resolution, exploring their metastable states and providing wall-clock acceleration of sampling compared to standard MD. Our method constitutes an important step towards general, transferable algorithms for accelerating MD.

Computational catalysis is playing an increasingly significant role in the design of catalysts across a wide range of applications. A common task for many computational methods is the need to accurately compute the minimum binding energy - the adsorption energy - for an adsorbate and a catalyst surface of interest. Traditionally, the identification of low energy adsorbate-surface configurations relies on heuristic methods and researcher intuition. As the desire to perform high-throughput screening increases, it becomes challenging to use heuristics and intuition alone. In this paper, we demonstrate machine learning potentials can be leveraged to identify low energy adsorbate-surface configurations more accurately and efficiently. Our algorithm provides a spectrum of trade-offs between accuracy and efficiency, with one balanced option finding the lowest energy configuration, within a 0.1 eV threshold, 86.33% of the time, while achieving a 1331x speedup in computation. To standardize benchmarking, we introduce the Open Catalyst Dense dataset containing nearly 1,000 diverse surfaces and 85,658 unique configurations.

In-context learning (ICL) -- the capacity of a model to infer and apply abstract patterns from examples provided within its input -- has been extensively studied in large language models trained for next-token prediction on human text. In fact, prior work often attributes this emergent behavior to distinctive statistical properties in human language. This raises a fundamental question: can ICL arise organically in other sequence domains purely through large-scale predictive training? To explore this, we turn to genomic sequences, an alternative symbolic domain rich in statistical structure. Specifically, we study the Evo2 genomic model, trained predominantly on next-nucleotide (A/T/C/G) prediction, at a scale comparable to mid-sized LLMs. We develop a controlled experimental framework comprising symbolic reasoning tasks instantiated in both linguistic and genomic forms, enabling direct comparison of ICL across genomic and linguistic models. Our results show that genomic models, like their linguistic counterparts, exhibit log-linear gains in pattern induction as the number of in-context demonstrations increases. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first evidence of organically emergent ICL in genomic sequences, supporting the hypothesis that ICL arises as a consequence of large-scale predictive modeling over rich data. These findings extend emergent meta-learning beyond language, pointing toward a unified, modality-agnostic view of in-context learning.

Flow matching in the continuous simplex has emerged as a promising strategy for DNA sequence design, but struggles to scale to higher simplex dimensions required for peptide and protein generation. We introduce Gumbel-Softmax Flow and Score Matching, a generative framework on the simplex based on a novel Gumbel-Softmax interpolant with a time-dependent temperature. Using this interpolant, we introduce Gumbel-Softmax Flow Matching by deriving a parameterized velocity field that transports from smooth categorical distributions to distributions concentrated at a single vertex of the simplex. We alternatively present Gumbel-Softmax Score Matching which learns to regress the gradient of the probability density. Our framework enables high-quality, diverse generation and scales efficiently to higher-dimensional simplices. To enable training-free guidance, we propose Straight-Through Guided Flows (STGFlow), a classifier-based guidance method that leverages straight-through estimators to steer the unconditional velocity field toward optimal vertices of the simplex. STGFlow enables efficient inference-time guidance using classifiers pre-trained on clean sequences, and can be used with any discrete flow method. Together, these components form a robust framework for controllable de novo sequence generation. We demonstrate state-of-the-art performance in conditional DNA promoter design, sequence-only protein generation, and target-binding peptide design for rare disease treatment.

Massive molecular simulations of drug-target proteins have been used as a tool to understand disease mechanism and develop therapeutics. This work focuses on learning a generative neural network on a structural ensemble of a drug-target protein, e.g. SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein, obtained from computationally expensive molecular simulations. Model tasks involve characterizing the distinct structural fluctuations of the protein bound to various drug molecules, as well as efficient generation of protein conformations that can serve as an complement of a molecular simulation engine. Specifically, we present a geometric autoencoder framework to learn separate latent space encodings of the intrinsic and extrinsic geometries of the protein structure. For this purpose, the proposed Protein Geometric AutoEncoder (ProGAE) model is trained on the protein contact map and the orientation of the backbone bonds of the protein. Using ProGAE latent embeddings, we reconstruct and generate the conformational ensemble of a protein at or near the experimental resolution, while gaining better interpretability and controllability in term of protein structure generation from the learned latent space. Additionally, ProGAE models are transferable to a different state of the same protein or to a new protein of different size, where only the dense layer decoding from the latent representation needs to be retrained. Results show that our geometric learning-based method enjoys both accuracy and efficiency for generating complex structural variations, charting the path toward scalable and improved approaches for analyzing and enhancing high-cost simulations of drug-target proteins.

Molecule generation is advancing rapidly in chemical discovery and drug design. Flow matching methods have recently set the state of the art (SOTA) in unconditional molecule generation, surpassing score-based diffusion models. However, diffusion models still lead in property-guided generation. In this work, we introduce PropMolFlow, a novel approach for property-guided molecule generation based on geometry-complete SE(3)-equivariant flow matching. Integrating five different property embedding methods with a Gaussian expansion of scalar properties, PropMolFlow outperforms previous SOTA diffusion models in conditional molecule generation across various properties while preserving the stability and validity of the generated molecules, consistent with its unconditional counterpart. Additionally, it enables faster inference with significantly fewer time steps compared to baseline models. We highlight the importance of validating the properties of generated molecules through DFT calculations performed at the same level of theory as the training data. Specifically, our analysis identifies properties that require DFT validation and others where a pretrained SE(3) geometric vector perceptron regressors provide sufficiently accurate predictions on generated molecules. Furthermore, we introduce a new property metric designed to assess the model's ability to propose molecules with underrepresented property values, assessing its capacity for out-of-distribution generalization. Our findings reveal shortcomings in existing structural metrics, which mistakenly validate open-shell molecules or molecules with invalid valence-charge configurations, underscoring the need for improved evaluation frameworks. Overall, this work paves the way for developing targeted property-guided generation methods, enhancing the design of molecular generative models for diverse applications.

Pre-trained language models like ChatGPT have significantly improved code generation. As these models scale up, there is an increasing need for the output to handle more intricate tasks. Moreover, in bioinformatics, generating functional programs poses additional notable challenges due to the amount of domain knowledge, the need for complicated data operations, and intricate functional dependencies between the operations. Here, we present BioCoder, a benchmark developed to evaluate existing pre-trained models in generating bioinformatics code. In relation to function-code generation, BioCoder covers potential package dependencies, class declarations, and global variables. It incorporates 1026 functions and 1243 methods in Python and Java from GitHub and 253 examples from the Rosalind Project. BioCoder incorporates a fuzz-testing framework for evaluation, and we have applied it to evaluate many models including InCoder, CodeGen, CodeGen2, SantaCoder, StarCoder, StarCoder+, InstructCodeT5+, and ChatGPT. Our detailed analysis of these models emphasizes the importance of domain knowledge, pragmatic code generation, and contextual understanding. Our dataset, benchmark, Docker images, and scripts required for testing are all available at https://github.com/gersteinlab/biocoder.

Protein design, a grand challenge of the day, involves optimization on a fitness landscape, and leading methods adopt a model-based approach where a model is trained on a training set (protein sequences and fitness) and proposes candidates to explore next. These methods are challenged by sparsity of high-fitness samples in the training set, a problem that has been in the literature. A less recognized but equally important problem stems from the distribution of training samples in the design space: leading methods are not designed for scenarios where the desired optimum is in a region that is not only poorly represented in training data, but also relatively far from the highly represented low-fitness regions. We show that this problem of "separation" in the design space is a significant bottleneck in existing model-based optimization tools and propose a new approach that uses a novel VAE as its search model to overcome the problem. We demonstrate its advantage over prior methods in robustly finding improved samples, regardless of the imbalance and separation between low- and high-fitness training samples. Our comprehensive benchmark on real and semi-synthetic protein datasets as well as solution design for physics-informed neural networks, showcases the generality of our approach in discrete and continuous design spaces. Our implementation is available at https://github.com/sabagh1994/PGVAE.

Developing robust representations of chemical structures that enable models to learn topological inductive biases is challenging. In this manuscript, we present a representation of atomistic systems. We begin by proving that our representation satisfies all structural, geometric, efficiency, and generalizability constraints. Afterward, we provide a general algorithm to encode any atomistic system. Finally, we report performance comparable to state-of-the-art methods on numerous tasks. We open-source all code and datasets. The code and data are available at https://github.com/rahulkhorana/PolyatomicComplexes.

Building credible simulators from data is difficult because structure design, parameter calibration, and out-of-distribution (OOD) robustness are tightly coupled. We introduce SOCIA (Simulation Orchestration for Computational Intelligence with Agents), a framework that treats simulator construction as joint structure-parameter co-optimization: it elicits mechanism-rich blueprints, exposes explicit tunable parameters, and instantiates a calibration schema, producing an executable simulator with built-in calibration hooks. SOCIA couples Bayesian Optimization for sample-efficient point calibration with Simulation-Based Inference for uncertainty-aware fitting; diagnostics trigger targeted structural edits in an outer refinement loop to co-optimize design and parameters under tight budgets. Across three diverse tasks, SOCIA consistently outperforms strong baselines, excelling on both in-distribution (ID) fitting and OOD shift. Ablations that weaken structure, calibration design, or tuning yield near-monotone degradations, underscoring the necessity of unified structure-parameter optimization. We will release the code soon.

Machine learning, notably deep learning, has significantly propelled molecular investigations within the biochemical sphere. Traditionally, modeling for such research has centered around a handful of paradigms. For instance, the prediction paradigm is frequently deployed for tasks such as molecular property prediction. To enhance the generation and decipherability of purely data-driven models, scholars have integrated biochemical domain knowledge into these molecular study models. This integration has sparked a surge in paradigm transfer, which is solving one molecular learning task by reformulating it as another one. With the emergence of Large Language Models, these paradigms have demonstrated an escalating trend towards harmonized unification. In this work, we delineate a literature survey focused on knowledge-informed molecular learning from the perspective of paradigm transfer. We classify the paradigms, scrutinize their methodologies, and dissect the contribution of domain knowledge. Moreover, we encapsulate prevailing trends and identify intriguing avenues for future exploration in molecular learning.

Methods of computational quantum chemistry provide accurate approximations of molecular properties crucial for computer-aided drug discovery and other areas of chemical science. However, high computational complexity limits the scalability of their applications. Neural network potentials (NNPs) are a promising alternative to quantum chemistry methods, but they require large and diverse datasets for training. This work presents a new dataset and benchmark called nabla^2DFT that is based on the nablaDFT. It contains twice as much molecular structures, three times more conformations, new data types and tasks, and state-of-the-art models. The dataset includes energies, forces, 17 molecular properties, Hamiltonian and overlap matrices, and a wavefunction object. All calculations were performed at the DFT level (omegaB97X-D/def2-SVP) for each conformation. Moreover, nabla^2DFT is the first dataset that contains relaxation trajectories for a substantial number of drug-like molecules. We also introduce a novel benchmark for evaluating NNPs in molecular property prediction, Hamiltonian prediction, and conformational optimization tasks. Finally, we propose an extendable framework for training NNPs and implement 10 models within it.

Structural biology relies on accurate three-dimensional biomolecular structures to advance our understanding of biological functions, disease mechanisms, and therapeutics. While recent advances in deep learning have enabled the development of all-atom foundation models for molecular modeling and generation, existing approaches face challenges in generalization due to the multi-modal nature of atomic data and the lack of comprehensive analysis of training and sampling strategies. To address these limitations, we propose PharMolixFM, a unified framework for constructing all-atom foundation models based on multi-modal generative techniques. Our framework includes three variants using state-of-the-art multi-modal generative models. By formulating molecular tasks as a generalized denoising process with task-specific priors, PharMolixFM achieves robust performance across various structural biology applications. Experimental results demonstrate that PharMolixFM-Diff achieves competitive prediction accuracy in protein-small-molecule docking (83.9% vs. 90.2% RMSD < 2Å, given pocket) with significantly improved inference speed. Moreover, we explore the empirical inference scaling law by introducing more sampling repeats or steps. Our code and model are available at https://github.com/PharMolix/OpenBioMed.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have revolutionized the field of natural language processing, but they fall short in comprehending biological sequences such as proteins. To address this challenge, we propose InstructProtein, an innovative LLM that possesses bidirectional generation capabilities in both human and protein languages: (i) taking a protein sequence as input to predict its textual function description and (ii) using natural language to prompt protein sequence generation. To achieve this, we first pre-train an LLM on both protein and natural language corpora, enabling it to comprehend individual languages. Then supervised instruction tuning is employed to facilitate the alignment of these two distinct languages. Herein, we introduce a knowledge graph-based instruction generation framework to construct a high-quality instruction dataset, addressing annotation imbalance and instruction deficits in existing protein-text corpus. In particular, the instructions inherit the structural relations between proteins and function annotations in knowledge graphs, which empowers our model to engage in the causal modeling of protein functions, akin to the chain-of-thought processes in natural languages. Extensive experiments on bidirectional protein-text generation tasks show that InstructProtein outperforms state-of-the-art LLMs by large margins. Moreover, InstructProtein serves as a pioneering step towards text-based protein function prediction and sequence design, effectively bridging the gap between protein and human language understanding.

Understanding protein dynamics is critical for elucidating their biological functions. The increasing availability of molecular dynamics (MD) data enables the training of deep generative models to efficiently explore the conformational space of proteins. However, existing approaches either fail to explicitly capture the temporal dependencies between conformations or do not support direct generation of time-independent samples. To address these limitations, we introduce ConfRover, an autoregressive model that simultaneously learns protein conformation and dynamics from MD trajectories, supporting both time-dependent and time-independent sampling. At the core of our model is a modular architecture comprising: (i) an encoding layer, adapted from protein folding models, that embeds protein-specific information and conformation at each time frame into a latent space; (ii) a temporal module, a sequence model that captures conformational dynamics across frames; and (iii) an SE(3) diffusion model as the structure decoder, generating conformations in continuous space. Experiments on ATLAS, a large-scale protein MD dataset of diverse structures, demonstrate the effectiveness of our model in learning conformational dynamics and supporting a wide range of downstream tasks. ConfRover is the first model to sample both protein conformations and trajectories within a single framework, offering a novel and flexible approach for learning from protein MD data.